Provided by: python3-hy_0.12.1-2_all 
NAME
hy - hy Documentation [image: Hy] [image]
Try Hy https://try-hy.appspot.com
PyPI https://pypi.python.org/pypi/hy
Source https://github.com/hylang/hy
List hylang-discuss
IRC #hy on Freenode
Build status
Travis CI.UNINDENT
Hy is a wonderful dialect of Lisp that's embedded in Python.
Since Hy transforms its Lisp code into the Python Abstract Syntax Tree, you have
the whole beautiful world of Python at your fingertips, in Lisp form!
Contents:
QUICKSTART
[image: Karen Rustard's Cuddles] [image]
(Thanks to Karen Rustad for Cuddles!)
HOW TO GET HY REAL FAST:
1. Create a Virtual Python Environment.
2. Activate your Virtual Python Environment.
3. Install hy from GitHub with $ pip install git+https://github.com/hylang/hy.git.
4. Start a REPL with hy.
5. Type stuff in the REPL:
=> (print "Hy!")
Hy!
=> (defn salutationsnm [name] (print (+ "Hy " name "!")))
=> (salutationsnm "YourName")
Hy YourName!
etc
6. Hit CTRL-D when you're done.
OMG! That's amazing! I want to write a Hy program.
7. Open up an elite programming editor and type:
#! /usr/bin/env hy
(print "I was going to code in Python syntax, but then I got Hy.")
8. Save as awesome.hy.
9. Make it executable:
chmod +x awesome.hy
10.
And run your first Hy program:
./awesome.hy
11.
Take a deep breath so as to not hyperventilate.
12.
Smile villainously and sneak off to your hydeaway and do unspeakable things.
TUTORIAL
Welcome to the Hy tutorial!
In a nutshell, Hy is a Lisp dialect, but one that converts its structure into Python ...
literally a conversion into Python's abstract syntax tree! (Or to put it in more crude
terms, Hy is lisp-stick on a Python!)
This is pretty cool because it means Hy is several things:
• A Lisp that feels very Pythonic
• For Lispers, a great way to use Lisp's crazy powers but in the wide world of Python's
libraries (why yes, you now can write a Django application in Lisp!)
• For Pythonistas, a great way to start exploring Lisp, from the comfort of Python!
• For everyone: a pleasant language that has a lot of neat ideas!
Basic intro to Lisp for Pythonistas
Okay, maybe you've never used Lisp before, but you've used Python!
A "hello world" program in Hy is actually super simple. Let's try it:
(print "hello world")
See? Easy! As you may have guessed, this is the same as the Python version of:
print "hello world"
To add up some super simple math, we could do:
(+ 1 3)
Which would return 4 and would be the equivalent of:
1 + 3
What you'll notice is that the first item in the list is the function being called and the
rest of the arguments are the arguments being passed in. In fact, in Hy (as with most
Lisps) we can pass in multiple arguments to the plus operator:
(+ 1 3 55)
Which would return 59.
Maybe you've heard of Lisp before but don't know much about it. Lisp isn't as hard as you
might think, and Hy inherits from Python, so Hy is a great way to start learning Lisp.
The main thing that's obvious about Lisp is that there's a lot of parentheses. This might
seem confusing at first, but it isn't so hard. Let's look at some simple math that's
wrapped in a bunch of parentheses that we could enter into the Hy interpreter:
(setv result (- (/ (+ 1 3 88) 2) 8))
This would return 38. But why? Well, we could look at the equivalent expression in
python:
result = ((1 + 3 + 88) / 2) - 8
If you were to try to figure out how the above were to work in python, you'd of course
figure out the results by solving each inner parenthesis. That's the same basic idea in
Hy. Let's try this exercise first in Python:
result = ((1 + 3 + 88) / 2) - 8
# simplified to...
result = (92 / 2) - 8
# simplified to...
result = 46 - 8
# simplified to...
result = 38
Now let's try the same thing in Hy:
(setv result (- (/ (+ 1 3 88) 2) 8))
; simplified to...
(setv result (- (/ 92 2) 8))
; simplified to...
(setv result (- 46 8))
; simplified to...
(setv result 38)
As you probably guessed, this last expression with setv means to assign the variable
"result" to 38.
See? Not too hard!
This is the basic premise of Lisp. Lisp stands for "list processing"; this means that the
structure of the program is actually lists of lists. (If you're familiar with Python
lists, imagine the entire same structure as above but with square brackets instead, any
you'll be able to see the structure above as both a program and a data structure.) This
is easier to understand with more examples, so let's write a simple Python program, test
it, and then show the equivalent Hy program:
def simple_conversation():
print "Hello! I'd like to get to know you. Tell me about yourself!"
name = raw_input("What is your name? ")
age = raw_input("What is your age? ")
print "Hello " + name + "! I see you are " + age + " years old."
simple_conversation()
If we ran this program, it might go like:
Hello! I'd like to get to know you. Tell me about yourself!
What is your name? Gary
What is your age? 38
Hello Gary! I see you are 38 years old.
Now let's look at the equivalent Hy program:
(defn simple-conversation []
(print "Hello! I'd like to get to know you. Tell me about yourself!")
(setv name (raw-input "What is your name? "))
(setv age (raw-input "What is your age? "))
(print (+ "Hello " name "! I see you are "
age " years old.")))
(simple-conversation)
If you look at the above program, as long as you remember that the first element in each
list of the program is the function (or macro... we'll get to those later) being called
and that the rest are the arguments, it's pretty easy to figure out what this all means.
(As you probably also guessed, defn is the Hy method of defining methods.)
Still, lots of people find this confusing at first because there's so many parentheses,
but there are plenty of things that can help make this easier: keep indentation nice and
use an editor with parenthesis matching (this will help you figure out what each
parenthesis pairs up with) and things will start to feel comfortable.
There are some advantages to having a code structure that's actually a very simple data
structure as the core of Lisp is based on. For one thing, it means that your programs are
easy to parse and that the entire actual structure of the program is very clearly exposed
to you. (There's an extra step in Hy where the structure you see is converted to Python's
own representations ... in "purer" Lisps such as Common Lisp or Emacs Lisp, the data
structure you see in the code and the data structure that is executed is much more
literally close.)
Another implication of this is macros: if a program's structure is a simple data
structure, that means you can write code that can write code very easily, meaning that
implementing entirely new language features can be very fast. Previous to Hy, this wasn't
very possible for Python programmers ... now you too can make use of macros' incredible
power (just be careful to not aim them footward)!
Hy is a Lisp-flavored Python
Hy converts to Python's own abstract syntax tree, so you'll soon start to find that all
the familiar power of python is at your fingertips.
You have full access to Python's data types and standard library in Hy. Let's experiment
with this in the hy interpreter:
=> [1 2 3]
[1, 2, 3]
=> {"dog" "bark"
... "cat" "meow"}
...
{'dog': 'bark', 'cat': 'meow'}
=> (, 1 2 3)
(1, 2, 3)
=> #{3 1 2}
{1, 2, 3}
=> 1/2
Fraction(1, 2)
Notice the last two lines: Hy has a fraction literal like Clojure.
If you are familiar with other Lisps, you may be interested that Hy supports the Common
Lisp method of quoting:
=> '(1 2 3)
(1L 2L 3L)
You also have access to all the built-in types' nice methods:
=> (.strip " fooooo ")
"fooooo"
What's this? Yes indeed, this is precisely the same as:
" fooooo ".strip()
That's right---Lisp with dot notation! If we have this string assigned as a variable, we
can also do the following:
(setv this-string " fooooo ")
(this-string.strip)
What about conditionals?:
(if (try-some-thing)
(print "this is if true")
(print "this is if false"))
As you can tell above, the first argument to if is a truth test, the second argument is
the body if true, and the third argument (optional!) is if false (ie. else).
If you need to do more complex conditionals, you'll find that you don't have elif
available in Hy. Instead, you should use something called cond. In Python, you might do
something like:
somevar = 33
if somevar > 50:
print "That variable is too big!"
elif somevar < 10:
print "That variable is too small!"
else:
print "That variable is jussssst right!"
In Hy, you would do:
(setv somevar 33)
(cond
[(> somevar 50)
(print "That variable is too big!")]
[(< somevar 10)
(print "That variable is too small!")]
[True
(print "That variable is jussssst right!")])
What you'll notice is that cond switches off between a statement that is executed and
checked conditionally for true or falseness, and then a bit of code to execute if it turns
out to be true. You'll also notice that the else is implemented at the end simply by
checking for True -- that's because True will always be true, so if we get this far, we'll
always run that one!
You might notice above that if you have code like:
(if some-condition
(body-if-true)
(body-if-false))
But wait! What if you want to execute more than one statement in the body of one of
these?
You can do the following:
(if (try-some-thing)
(do
(print "this is if true")
(print "and why not, let's keep talking about how true it is!"))
(print "this one's still simply just false"))
You can see that we used do to wrap multiple statements. If you're familiar with other
Lisps, this is the equivalent of progn elsewhere.
Comments start with semicolons:
(print "this will run")
; (print "but this will not")
(+ 1 2 3) ; we'll execute the addition, but not this comment!
Hashbang (#!) syntax is supported:
#! /usr/bin/env hy
(print "Make me executable, and run me!")
Looping is not hard but has a kind of special structure. In Python, we might do:
for i in range(10):
print "'i' is now at " + str(i)
The equivalent in Hy would be:
(for [i (range 10)]
(print (+ "'i' is now at " (str i))))
You can also import and make use of various Python libraries. For example:
(import os)
(if (os.path.isdir "/tmp/somedir")
(os.mkdir "/tmp/somedir/anotherdir")
(print "Hey, that path isn't there!"))
Python's context managers (with statements) are used like this:
(with [f (open "/tmp/data.in")]
(print (.read f)))
which is equivalent to:
with open("/tmp/data.in") as f:
print f.read()
And yes, we do have List comprehensions! In Python you might do:
odds_squared = [
pow(num, 2)
for num in range(100)
if num % 2 == 1]
In Hy, you could do these like:
(setv odds-squared
(list-comp
(pow num 2)
(num (range 100))
(= (% num 2) 1)))
; And, an example stolen shamelessly from a Clojure page:
; Let's list all the blocks of a Chessboard:
(list-comp
(, x y)
(x (range 8)
y "ABCDEFGH"))
; [(0, 'A'), (0, 'B'), (0, 'C'), (0, 'D'), (0, 'E'), (0, 'F'), (0, 'G'), (0, 'H'),
; (1, 'A'), (1, 'B'), (1, 'C'), (1, 'D'), (1, 'E'), (1, 'F'), (1, 'G'), (1, 'H'),
; (2, 'A'), (2, 'B'), (2, 'C'), (2, 'D'), (2, 'E'), (2, 'F'), (2, 'G'), (2, 'H'),
; (3, 'A'), (3, 'B'), (3, 'C'), (3, 'D'), (3, 'E'), (3, 'F'), (3, 'G'), (3, 'H'),
; (4, 'A'), (4, 'B'), (4, 'C'), (4, 'D'), (4, 'E'), (4, 'F'), (4, 'G'), (4, 'H'),
; (5, 'A'), (5, 'B'), (5, 'C'), (5, 'D'), (5, 'E'), (5, 'F'), (5, 'G'), (5, 'H'),
; (6, 'A'), (6, 'B'), (6, 'C'), (6, 'D'), (6, 'E'), (6, 'F'), (6, 'G'), (6, 'H'),
; (7, 'A'), (7, 'B'), (7, 'C'), (7, 'D'), (7, 'E'), (7, 'F'), (7, 'G'), (7, 'H')]
Python has support for various fancy argument and keyword arguments. In Python we might
see:
>>> def optional_arg(pos1, pos2, keyword1=None, keyword2=42):
... return [pos1, pos2, keyword1, keyword2]
...
>>> optional_arg(1, 2)
[1, 2, None, 42]
>>> optional_arg(1, 2, 3, 4)
[1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> optional_arg(keyword1=1, pos2=2, pos1=3, keyword2=4)
[3, 2, 1, 4]
The same thing in Hy:
=> (defn optional-arg [pos1 pos2 &optional keyword1 [keyword2 42]]
... [pos1 pos2 keyword1 keyword2])
=> (optional-arg 1 2)
[1 2 None 42]
=> (optional-arg 1 2 3 4)
[1 2 3 4]
If you're running a version of Hy past 0.10.1 (eg, git master), there's also a nice new
keyword argument syntax:
=> (optional-arg :keyword1 1
... :pos2 2
... :pos1 3
... :keyword2 4)
[3, 2, 1, 4]
Otherwise, you can always use apply. But what's apply?
Are you familiar with passing in *args and **kwargs in Python?:
>>> args = [1 2]
>>> kwargs = {"keyword2": 3
... "keyword1": 4}
>>> optional_arg(*args, **kwargs)
We can reproduce this with apply:
=> (setv args [1 2])
=> (setv kwargs {"keyword2" 3
... "keyword1" 4})
=> (apply optional-arg args kwargs)
[1, 2, 4, 3]
There's also a dictionary-style keyword arguments construction that looks like:
(defn another-style [&key {"key1" "val1" "key2" "val2"}]
[key1 key2])
The difference here is that since it's a dictionary, you can't rely on any specific
ordering to the arguments.
Hy also supports *args and **kwargs. In Python:
def some_func(foo, bar, *args, **kwargs):
import pprint
pprint.pprint((foo, bar, args, kwargs))
The Hy equivalent:
(defn some-func [foo bar &rest args &kwargs kwargs]
(import pprint)
(pprint.pprint (, foo bar args kwargs)))
Finally, of course we need classes! In Python, we might have a class like:
class FooBar(object):
"""
Yet Another Example Class
"""
def __init__(self, x):
self.x = x
def get_x(self):
"""
Return our copy of x
"""
return self.x
In Hy:
(defclass FooBar [object]
"Yet Another Example Class"
(defn --init-- [self x]
(setv self.x x))
(defn get-x [self]
"Return our copy of x"
self.x))
You can also do class-level attributes. In Python:
class Customer(models.Model):
name = models.CharField(max_length=255)
address = models.TextField()
notes = models.TextField()
In Hy:
(defclass Customer [models.Model]
[name (models.CharField :max-length 255})
address (models.TextField)
notes (models.TextField)])
Macros
One really powerful feature of Hy are macros. They are small functions that are used to
generate code (or data). When program written in Hy is started, the macros are executed
and their output is placed in the program source. After this, the program starts executing
normally. Very simple example:
=> (defmacro hello [person]
... `(print "Hello there," ~person))
=> (hello "Tuukka")
Hello there, Tuukka
The thing to notice here is that hello macro doesn't output anything on screen. Instead it
creates piece of code that is then executed and prints on screen. This macro writes a
piece of program that looks like this (provided that we used "Tuukka" as parameter):
(print "Hello there," Tuukka)
We can also manipulate code with macros:
=> (defmacro rev [code]
... (let [op (last code) params (list (butlast code))]
... `(~op ~@params)))
=> (rev (1 2 3 +))
6
The code that was generated with this macro just switched around some of the elements, so
by the time program started executing, it actually reads:
(+ 1 2 3)
Sometimes it's nice to have a very short name for a macro that doesn't take much space or
use extra parentheses. Reader macros can be pretty useful in these situations (and since
Hy operates well with unicode, we aren't running out of characters that soon):
=> (defreader ↻ [code]
... (let [op (last code) params (list (butlast code))]
... `(~op ~@params)))
=> #↻(1 2 3 +)
6
Macros are useful when one wishes to extend Hy or write their own language on top of that.
Many features of Hy are macros, like when, cond and ->.
What if you want to use a macro that's defined in a different module? The special form
import won't help, because it merely translates to a Python import statement that's
executed at run-time, and macros are expanded at compile-time, that is, during the
translate from Hy to Python. Instead, use require, which imports the module and makes
macros available at compile-time. require uses the same syntax as import.
=> (require tutorial.macros)
=> (tutorial.macros.rev (1 2 3 +))
6
Hy <-> Python interop
By importing Hy, you can use Hy directly from Python!
If you save the following in greetings.hy:
(defn greet [name] (print "hello from hy," name))
Then you can use it directly from python, by importing hy before importing the module. In
Python:
import hy
import greetings
greetings.greet("Foo")
You can also declare a function in python (or even a class!) and use it in Hy!
If you save the following in greetings.py in Python:
def greet(name):
print("hello, %s" % (name))
You can use it in Hy:
(import greetings)
(.greet greetings "foo")
To use keyword arguments, you can use in greetings.py:
def greet(name, title="Sir"):
print("Greetings, %s %s" % (title,name))
(import greetings)
(.greet greetings "Foo")
(.greet greetings "Foo" "Darth")
(apply (. greetings greet) ["Foo"] {:title "Lord"})
Which would output:
Greetings, Sir Foo
Greetings, Darth Foo
Greetings, Lord Foo
Protips!
Hy also features something known as the "threading macro", a really neat feature of
Clojure's. The "threading macro" (written as ->) is used to avoid deep nesting of
expressions.
The threading macro inserts each expression into the next expression's first argument
place.
Let's take the classic:
(loop (print (eval (read))))
Rather than write it like that, we can write it as follows:
(-> (read) (eval) (print) (loop))
Now, using python-sh, we can show how the threading macro (because of python-sh's setup)
can be used like a pipe:
=> (import [sh [cat grep wc]])
=> (-> (cat "/usr/share/dict/words") (grep "-E" "^hy") (wc "-l"))
210
Which, of course, expands out to:
(wc (grep (cat "/usr/share/dict/words") "-E" "^hy") "-l")
Much more readable, no? Use the threading macro!
HY STYLE GUIDE
“You know, Minister, I disagree with Dumbledore on many counts…but you cannot deny he’s
got style…” — Phineas Nigellus Black, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix
The Hy style guide intends to be a set of ground rules for the Hyve (yes, the Hy community
prides itself in appending Hy to everything) to write idiomatic Hy code. Hy derives a lot
from Clojure & Common Lisp, while always maintaining Python interoperability.
Prelude
The Tao of Hy
Ummon asked the head monk, "What sutra are you lecturing on?"
"The Nirvana Sutra."
"The Nirvana Sutra has the Four Virtues, hasn't it?"
"It has."
Ummon asked, picking up a cup, "How many virtues has this?"
"None at all," said the monk.
"But ancient people said it had, didn't they?" said Ummon.
"What do you think of what they said?"
Ummon struck the cup and asked, "You understand?"
"No," said the monk.
"Then," said Ummon, "You'd better go on with your lectures on the sutra."
— the (koan) macro
The following illustrates a brief list of design decisions that went into the making of
Hy.
• Look like a Lisp; DTRT with it (e.g. dashes turn to underscores, earmuffs turn to
all-caps).
• We're still Python. Most of the internals translate 1:1 to Python internals.
• Use Unicode everywhere.
• Fix the bad decisions in Python 2 when we can (see true_division).
• When in doubt, defer to Python.
• If you're still unsure, defer to Clojure.
• If you're even more unsure, defer to Common Lisp.
• Keep in mind we're not Clojure. We're not Common Lisp. We're Homoiconic Python, with
extra bits that make sense.
Layout & Indentation
• Avoid trailing spaces. They suck!
• Indentation shall be 2 spaces (no hard tabs), except when matching the indentation of
the previous line.
;; Good (and preferred)
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))))
;; Still okay
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2) n (+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))))
;; Still okay
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))))
;; Hysterically ridiculous
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2)
n ;; yes, I love randomly hitting the space key
(+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))))
• Parentheses must never be left alone, sad and lonesome on their own line.
;; Good (and preferred)
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))))
;; Hysterically ridiculous
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))
)
) ; GAH, BURN IT WITH FIRE
• Vertically align let blocks.
(let [foo (bar)
qux (baz)]
(foo qux))
• Inline comments shall be two spaces from the end of the code; they must always have a
space between the comment character and the start of the comment. Also, try to not
comment the obvious.
;; Good
(setv ind (dec x)) ; indexing starts from 0
;; Style-compliant but just states the obvious
(setv ind (dec x)) ; sets index to x-1
;; Bad
(setv ind (dec x));typing words for fun
Coding Style
• As a convention, try not to use def for anything other than global variables; use setv
inside functions, loops, etc.
;; Good (and preferred)
(def *limit* 400000)
(defn fibs [a b]
(while True
(yield a)
(setv (, a b) (, b (+ a b)))))
;; Bad (and not preferred)
(defn fibs [a b]
(while True
(yield a)
(def (, a b) (, b (+ a b)))))
• Do not use s-expression syntax where vector syntax is intended. For instance, the fact
that the former of these two examples works is just because the compiler isn't overly
strict. In reality, the correct syntax in places such as this is the latter.
;; Bad (and evil)
(defn foo (x) (print x))
(foo 1)
;; Good (and preferred)
(defn foo [x] (print x))
(foo 1)
• Use the threading macro or the threading tail macros when encountering deeply nested
s-expressions. However, be judicious when using them. Do use them when clarity and
readability improves; do not construct convoluted, hard to understand expressions.
;; Preferred
(def *names*
(with [f (open "names.txt")]
(-> (.read f) (.strip) (.replace "\"" "") (.split ",") (sorted))))
;; Not so good
(def *names*
(with [f (open "names.txt")]
(sorted (.split "," (.replace "\"" "" (.strip (.read f)))))))
;; Probably not a good idea
(defn square? [x]
(->> 2 (pow (int (sqrt x))) (= x)))
• Clojure-style dot notation is preferred over the direct call of the object's method,
though both will continue to be supported.
;; Good
(with [fd (open "/etc/passwd")]
(print (.readlines fd)))
;; Not so good
(with [fd (open "/etc/passwd")]
(print (fd.readlines)))
Conclusion
“Fashions fade, style is eternal” —Yves Saint Laurent
This guide is just a set of community guidelines, and obviously, community guidelines do
not make sense without an active community. Contributions are welcome. Join us at #hy in
freenode, blog about it, tweet about it, and most importantly, have fun with Hy.
Thanks
• This guide is heavily inspired from @paultag 's blog post Hy Survival Guide
• The Clojure Style Guide
DOCUMENTATION INDEX
Contents:
Command Line Interface
hy
Command Line Options
-c <command>
Execute the Hy code in command.
$ hy -c "(print (+ 2 2))"
4
-i <command>
Execute the Hy code in command, then stay in REPL.
-m <module>
Execute the Hy code in module, including defmain if defined.
The -m flag terminates the options list so that all arguments after the module name
are passed to the module in sys.argv.
New in version 0.11.0.
--spy Print equivalent Python code before executing in REPL. For example:
=> (defn salutationsnm [name] (print (+ "Hy " name "!")))
def salutationsnm(name):
return print(((u'Hy ' + name) + u'!'))
=> (salutationsnm "YourName")
salutationsnm(u'YourName')
Hy YourName!
=>
--spy only works on REPL mode.
--show-tracebacks
Print extended tracebacks for Hy exceptions.
New in version 0.9.12.
-v Print the Hy version number and exit.
hyc
Command Line Options
file[, fileN]
Compile Hy code to Python bytecode. For example, save the following code as
hyname.hy:
(defn hy-hy [name]
(print (+ "Hy " name "!")))
(hy-hy "Afroman")
Then run:
$ hyc hyname.hy
$ python hyname.pyc
Hy Afroman!
hy2py
New in version 0.10.1.
Command Line Options
-s
--with-source
Show the parsed source structure.
-a
--with-ast
Show the generated AST.
-np
--without-python
Do not show the Python code generated from the AST.
Hy (the language)
WARNING:
This is incomplete; please consider contributing to the documentation effort.
Theory of Hy
Hy maintains, over everything else, 100% compatibility in both directions with Python
itself. All Hy code follows a few simple rules. Memorize this, as it's going to come in
handy.
These rules help ensure that Hy code is idiomatic and interfaceable in both languages.
• Symbols in earmufs will be translated to the upper-cased version of that string. For
example, foo will become FOO.
• UTF-8 entities will be encoded using punycode and prefixed with hy_. For instance, ⚘
will become hy_w7h, ♥ will become hy_g6h, and i♥u will become hy_iu_t0x.
• Symbols that contain dashes will have them replaced with underscores. For example,
render-template will become render_template. This means that symbols with dashes will
shadow their underscore equivalents, and vice versa.
Notes on Syntax
integers
New in version 0.11.1.
In addition to regular numbers, standard notation from Python 3 for non-base 10 integers
is used. 0x for Hex, 0o for Octal, 0b for Binary.
(print 0x80 0b11101 0o102 30)
Built-Ins
Hy features a number of special forms that are used to help generate correct Python AST.
The following are "special" forms, which may have behavior that's slightly unexpected in
some situations.
.
New in version 0.10.0.
. is used to perform attribute access on objects. It uses a small DSL to allow quick
access to attributes and items in a nested data structure.
For instance,
(. foo bar baz [(+ 1 2)] frob)
Compiles down to:
foo.bar.baz[1 + 2].frob
. compiles its first argument (in the example, foo) as the object on which to do the
attribute dereference. It uses bare symbols as attributes to access (in the example, bar,
baz, frob), and compiles the contents of lists (in the example, [(+ 1 2)]) for indexation.
Other arguments raise a compilation error.
Access to unknown attributes raises an AttributeError. Access to unknown keys raises an
IndexError (on lists and tuples) or a KeyError (on dictionaries).
->
-> (or the threading macro) is used to avoid nesting of expressions. The threading macro
inserts each expression into the next expression's first argument place. The following
code demonstrates this:
=> (defn output [a b] (print a b))
=> (-> (+ 4 6) (output 5))
10 5
->>
->> (or the threading tail macro) is similar to the threading macro, but instead of
inserting each expression into the next expression's first argument, it appends it as the
last argument. The following code demonstrates this:
=> (defn output [a b] (print a b))
=> (->> (+ 4 6) (output 5))
5 10
apply
apply is used to apply an optional list of arguments and an optional dictionary of kwargs
to a function. The symbol mangling transformations will be applied to all keys in the
dictionary of kwargs, provided the dictionary and its keys are defined in-place.
Usage: (apply fn-name [args] [kwargs])
Examples:
(defn thunk []
"hy there")
(apply thunk)
;=> "hy there"
(defn total-purchase [price amount &optional [fees 1.05] [vat 1.1]]
(* price amount fees vat))
(apply total-purchase [10 15])
;=> 173.25
(apply total-purchase [10 15] {"vat" 1.05})
;=> 165.375
(apply total-purchase [] {"price" 10 "amount" 15 "vat" 1.05})
;=> 165.375
(apply total-purchase [] {:price 10 :amount 15 :vat 1.05})
;=> 165.375
and
and is used in logical expressions. It takes at least two parameters. If all parameters
evaluate to True, the last parameter is returned. In any other case, the first false value
will be returned. Example usage:
=> (and True False)
False
=> (and True True)
True
=> (and True 1)
1
=> (and True [] False True)
[]
NOTE:
and short-circuits and stops evaluating parameters as soon as the first false is
encountered.
=> (and False (print "hello"))
False
as->
New in version 0.12.0.
Expands to sequence of assignments to the provided name, starting with head. The previous
result is thus available in the subsequent form. Returns the final result, and leaves the
name bound to it in the local scope. This behaves much like the other threading macros,
but requires you to specify the threading point per form via the name instead of always
the first or last argument.
;; example how -> and as-> relate
=> (as-> 0 it
... (inc it)
... (inc it))
2
=> (-> 0 inc inc)
2
;; create data for our cuttlefish database
=> (setv data [{:name "hooded cuttlefish"
... :classification {:subgenus "Acanthosepion"
... :species "Sepia prashadi"}
... :discovered {:year 1936
... :name "Ronald Winckworth"}}
... {:name "slender cuttlefish"
... :classification {:subgenus "Doratosepion"
... :species "Sepia braggi"}
... :discovered {:year 1907
... :name "Sir Joseph Cooke Verco"}}])
;; retrieve name of first entry
=> (as-> (first data) it
... (:name it))
'hooded cuttlefish'
;; retrieve species of first entry
=> (as-> (first data) it
... (:classification it)
... (:species it))
'Sepia prashadi'
;; find out who discovered slender cuttlefish
=> (as-> (filter (fn [entry] (= (:name entry)
... "slender cuttlefish")) data) it
... (first it)
... (:discovered it)
... (:name it))
'Sir Joseph Cooke Verco'
;; more convoluted example to load web page and retrieve data from it
=> (import [urllib.request [urlopen]])
=> (as-> (urlopen "http://docs.hylang.org/en/stable/") it
... (.read it)
... (.decode it "utf-8")
... (drop (.index it "Welcome") it)
... (take 30 it)
... (list it)
... (.join "" it))
'Welcome to Hy’s documentation!
NOTE:
In these examples, the REPL will report a tuple (e.g. ('Sepia prashadi', 'Sepia
prashadi')) as the result, but only a single value is actually returned.
assert
assert is used to verify conditions while the program is running. If the condition is not
met, an AssertionError is raised. assert may take one or two parameters. The first
parameter is the condition to check, and it should evaluate to either True or False. The
second parameter, optional, is a label for the assert, and is the string that will be
raised with the AssertionError. For example:
(assert (= variable expected-value))
(assert False)
; AssertionError
(assert (= 1 2) "one should equal two")
; AssertionError: one should equal two
assoc
assoc is used to associate a key with a value in a dictionary or to set an index of a list
to a value. It takes at least three parameters: the data structure to be modified, a key
or index, and a value. If more than three parameters are used, it will associate in pairs.
Examples of usage:
=>(let [collection {}]
... (assoc collection "Dog" "Bark")
... (print collection))
{u'Dog': u'Bark'}
=>(let [collection {}]
... (assoc collection "Dog" "Bark" "Cat" "Meow")
... (print collection))
{u'Cat': u'Meow', u'Dog': u'Bark'}
=>(let [collection [1 2 3 4]]
... (assoc collection 2 None)
... (print collection))
[1, 2, None, 4]
NOTE:
assoc modifies the datastructure in place and returns None.
break
break is used to break out from a loop. It terminates the loop immediately. The following
example has an infinite while loop that is terminated as soon as the user enters k.
(while True (if (= "k" (raw-input "? "))
(break)
(print "Try again")))
cond
cond can be used to build nested if statements. The following example shows the
relationship between the macro and its expansion:
(cond [condition-1 result-1]
[condition-2 result-2])
(if condition-1 result-1
(if condition-2 result-2))
As shown below, only the first matching result block is executed.
=> (defn check-value [value]
... (cond [(< value 5) (print "value is smaller than 5")]
... [(= value 5) (print "value is equal to 5")]
... [(> value 5) (print "value is greater than 5")]
... [True (print "value is something that it should not be")]))
=> (check-value 6)
value is greater than 5
continue
continue returns execution to the start of a loop. In the following example,
(side-effect1) is called for each iteration. (side-effect2), however, is only called on
every other value in the list.
;; assuming that (side-effect1) and (side-effect2) are functions and
;; collection is a list of numerical values
(for [x collection]
(side-effect1 x)
(if (% x 2)
(continue))
(side-effect2 x))
dict-comp
dict-comp is used to create dictionaries. It takes three or four parameters. The first
two parameters are for controlling the return value (key-value pair) while the third is
used to select items from a sequence. The fourth and optional parameter can be used to
filter out some of the items in the sequence based on a conditional expression.
=> (dict-comp x (* x 2) [x (range 10)] (odd? x))
{1: 2, 3: 6, 9: 18, 5: 10, 7: 14}
do
do is used to evaluate each of its arguments and return the last one. Return values from
every other than the last argument are discarded. It can be used in lambda or list-comp
to perform more complex logic as shown in one of the following examples.
Some example usage:
=> (if True
... (do (print "Side effects rock!")
... (print "Yeah, really!")))
Side effects rock!
Yeah, really!
;; assuming that (side-effect) is a function that we want to call for each
;; and every value in the list, but whose return value we do not care about
=> (list-comp (do (side-effect x)
... (if (< x 5) (* 2 x)
... (* 4 x)))
... (x (range 10)))
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36]
do can accept any number of arguments, from 1 to n.
def / setv
def and setv are used to bind a value, object, or function to a symbol. For example:
=> (def names ["Alice" "Bob" "Charlie"])
=> (print names)
[u'Alice', u'Bob', u'Charlie']
=> (setv counter (fn [collection item] (.count collection item)))
=> (counter [1 2 3 4 5 2 3] 2)
2
They can be used to assign multiple variables at once:
=> (setv a 1 b 2)
(1L, 2L)
=> a
1L
=> b
2L
=>
defclass
New classes are declared with defclass. It can takes two optional parameters: a vector
defining a possible super classes and another vector containing attributes of the new
class as two item vectors.
(defclass class-name [super-class-1 super-class-2]
[attribute value]
(defn method [self] (print "hello!")))
Both values and functions can be bound on the new class as shown by the example below:
=> (defclass Cat []
... [age None
... colour "white"]
...
... (defn speak [self] (print "Meow")))
=> (def spot (Cat))
=> (setv spot.colour "Black")
'Black'
=> (.speak spot)
Meow
defn
defn macro is used to define functions. It takes three parameters: the name of the
function to define, a vector of parameters, and the body of the function:
(defn name [params] body)
Parameters may have the following keywords in front of them:
&optional
Parameter is optional. The parameter can be given as a two item list, where the
first element is parameter name and the second is the default value. The parameter
can be also given as a single item, in which case the default value is None.
=> (defn total-value [value &optional [value-added-tax 10]]
... (+ (/ (* value value-added-tax) 100) value))
=> (total-value 100)
110.0
=> (total-value 100 1)
101.0
&key Parameter is a dict of keyword arguments. The keys of the dict specify the
parameter names and the values give the default values of the parameters.
=> (defn key-parameters [&key {"a" 1 "b" 2}]
... (print "a is" a "and b is" b))
=> (key-parameters :a 1 :b 2)
a is 1 and b is 2
=> (key-parameters :b 1 :a 2)
a is 2 and b is 1
The following declarations are equivalent:
(defn key-parameters [&key {"a" 1 "b" 2}])
(defn key-parameters [&optional [a 1] [b 2]])
&kwargs
Parameter will contain 0 or more keyword arguments.
The following code examples defines a function that will print all keyword
arguments and their values.
=> (defn print-parameters [&kwargs kwargs]
... (for [(, k v) (.items kwargs)] (print k v)))
=> (print-parameters :parameter-1 1 :parameter-2 2)
parameter_1 1
parameter_2 2
; to avoid the mangling of '-' to '_', use apply:
=> (apply print-parameters [] {"parameter-1" 1 "parameter-2" 2})
parameter-1 1
parameter-2 2
&rest Parameter will contain 0 or more positional arguments. No other positional
arguments may be specified after this one.
The following code example defines a function that can be given 0 to n numerical
parameters. It then sums every odd number and subtracts every even number.
=> (defn zig-zag-sum [&rest numbers]
(let [odd-numbers (list-comp x [x numbers] (odd? x))
even-numbers (list-comp x [x numbers] (even? x))]
(- (sum odd-numbers) (sum even-numbers))))
=> (zig-zag-sum)
0
=> (zig-zag-sum 3 9 4)
8
=> (zig-zag-sum 1 2 3 4 5 6)
-3
&kwonly
New in version 0.12.0.
Parameters that can only be called as keywords. Mandatory keyword-only arguments
are declared with the argument's name; optional keyword-only arguments are declared
as a two-element list containing the argument name followed by the default value
(as with &optional above).
=> (defn compare [a b &kwonly keyfn [reverse false]]
... (let [result (keyfn a b)]
... (if (not reverse)
... result
... (- result))))
=> (apply compare ["lisp" "python"]
... {"keyfn" (fn [x y]
... (reduce - (map (fn [s] (ord (first s))) [x y])))})
-4
=> (apply compare ["lisp" "python"]
... {"keyfn" (fn [x y]
... (reduce - (map (fn [s] (ord (first s))) [x y])))
... "reverse" True})
4
=> (compare "lisp" "python")
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<input>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: compare() missing 1 required keyword-only argument: 'keyfn'
Availability: Python 3.
defmain
New in version 0.10.1.
The defmain macro defines a main function that is immediately called with sys.argv as
arguments if and only if this file is being executed as a script. In other words, this:
(defmain [&rest args]
(do-something-with args))
is the equivalent of:
def main(*args):
do_something_with(args)
return 0
if __name__ == "__main__":
import sys
retval = main(*sys.argv)
if isinstance(retval, int):
sys.exit(retval)
Note that as you can see above, if you return an integer from this function, this will be
used as the exit status for your script. (Python defaults to exit status 0 otherwise,
which means everything's okay!) Since (sys.exit 0) is not run explicitly in the case of a
non-integer return from defmain, it's a good idea to put (defmain) as the last piece of
code in your file.
If you want fancy command-line arguments, you can use the standard Python module argparse
in the usual way:
(import argparse)
(defmain [&rest _]
(setv parser (argparse.ArgumentParser))
(.add-argument parser "STRING"
:help "string to replicate")
(.add-argument parser "-n" :type int :default 3
:help "number of copies")
(setv args (parser.parse_args))
(print (* args.STRING args.n))
0)
defmacro
defmacro is used to define macros. The general format is (defmacro name [parameters]
expr).
The following example defines a macro that can be used to swap order of elements in code,
allowing the user to write code in infix notation, where operator is in between the
operands.
=> (defmacro infix [code]
... (quasiquote (
... (unquote (get code 1))
... (unquote (get code 0))
... (unquote (get code 2)))))
=> (infix (1 + 1))
2
defmacro/g!
New in version 0.9.12.
defmacro/g! is a special version of defmacro that is used to automatically generate gensym
for any symbol that starts with g!.
For example, g!a would become (gensym "a").
SEE ALSO:
Section using-gensym
defmacro!
defmacro! is like defmacro/g! plus automatic once-only evaluation for o! parameters, which
are available as the equivalent g! symbol.
For example,
=> (defn expensive-get-number [] (print "spam") 14)
=> (defmacro triple-1 [n] `(+ n n n))
=> (triple-1 (expensive-get-number)) ; evals n three times
spam
spam
spam
42
=> (defmacro/g! triple-2 [n] `(do (setv ~g!n ~n) (+ ~g!n ~g!n ~g!n)))
=> (triple-2 (expensive-get-number)) ; avoid repeats with a gensym
spam
42
=> (defmacro! triple-3 [o!n] `(+ ~g!n ~g!n ~g!n))
=> (triple-3 (expensive-get-number)) ; easier with defmacro!
spam
42
defreader
New in version 0.9.12.
defreader defines a reader macro, enabling you to restructure or modify syntax.
=> (defreader ^ [expr] (print expr))
=> #^(1 2 3 4)
(1 2 3 4)
=> #^"Hello"
"Hello"
SEE ALSO:
Section Reader Macros
del
New in version 0.9.12.
del removes an object from the current namespace.
=> (setv foo 42)
=> (del foo)
=> foo
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<console>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'foo' is not defined
del can also remove objects from mappings, lists, and more.
=> (setv test (list (range 10)))
=> test
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (del (cut test 2 4)) ;; remove items from 2 to 4 excluded
=> test
[0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (setv dic {"foo" "bar"})
=> dic
{"foo": "bar"}
=> (del (get dic "foo"))
=> dic
{}
doto
New in version 0.10.1.
doto is used to simplify a sequence of method calls to an object.
=> (doto [] (.append 1) (.append 2) .reverse)
[2 1]
=> (setv collection [])
=> (.append collection 1)
=> (.append collection 2)
=> (.reverse collection)
=> collection
[2 1]
eval
eval evaluates a quoted expression and returns the value. The optional second and third
arguments specify the dictionary of globals to use and the module name. The globals
dictionary defaults to (local) and the module name defaults to the name of the current
module.
=> (eval '(print "Hello World"))
"Hello World"
If you want to evaluate a string, use read-str to convert it to a form first:
=> (eval (read-str "(+ 1 1)"))
2
eval-and-compile
eval-when-compile
first / car
first and car are macros for accessing the first element of a collection:
=> (first (range 10))
0
for
for is used to call a function for each element in a list or vector. The results of each
call are discarded and the for expression returns None instead. The example code iterates
over collection and for each element in collection calls the side-effect function with
element as its argument:
;; assuming that (side-effect) is a function that takes a single parameter
(for [element collection] (side-effect element))
;; for can have an optional else block
(for [element collection] (side-effect element)
(else (side-effect-2)))
The optional else block is only executed if the for loop terminates normally. If the
execution is halted with break, the else block does not execute.
=> (for [element [1 2 3]] (if (< element 3)
... (print element)
... (break))
... (else (print "loop finished")))
1
2
=> (for [element [1 2 3]] (if (< element 4)
... (print element)
... (break))
... (else (print "loop finished")))
1
2
3
loop finished
genexpr
genexpr is used to create generator expressions. It takes two or three parameters. The
first parameter is the expression controlling the return value, while the second is used
to select items from a list. The third and optional parameter can be used to filter out
some of the items in the list based on a conditional expression. genexpr is similar to
list-comp, except it returns an iterable that evaluates values one by one instead of
evaluating them immediately.
=> (def collection (range 10))
=> (def filtered (genexpr x [x collection] (even? x)))
=> (list filtered)
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
gensym
New in version 0.9.12.
gensym is used to generate a unique symbol that allows macros to be written without
accidental variable name clashes.
=> (gensym)
u':G_1235'
=> (gensym "x")
u':x_1236'
SEE ALSO:
Section using-gensym
get
get is used to access single elements in lists and dictionaries. get takes two parameters:
the data structure and the index or key of the item. It will then return the corresponding
value from the dictionary or the list. Example usage:
=> (let [animals {"dog" "bark" "cat" "meow"}
... numbers ["zero" "one" "two" "three"]]
... (print (get animals "dog"))
... (print (get numbers 2)))
bark
two
NOTE:
get raises a KeyError if a dictionary is queried for a non-existing key.
NOTE:
get raises an IndexError if a list or a tuple is queried for an index that is out of
bounds.
global
global can be used to mark a symbol as global. This allows the programmer to assign a
value to a global symbol. Reading a global symbol does not require the global keyword --
only assigning it does.
The following example shows how the global symbol a is assigned a value in a function and
is later on printed in another function. Without the global keyword, the second function
would have raised a NameError.
(defn set-a [value]
(global a)
(setv a value))
(defn print-a []
(print a))
(set-a 5)
(print-a)
if / if* / if-not
New in version 0.10.0: if-not
if / if* / if-not respect Python truthiness, that is, a test fails if it evaluates to a
"zero" (including values of len zero, None, and False), and passes otherwise, but values
with a __bool__ method (__nonzero__ in Python 2) can overrides this.
The if macro is for conditionally selecting an expression for evaluation. The result of
the selected expression becomes the result of the entire if form. if can select a group of
expressions with the help of a do block.
if takes any number of alternating test and then expressions, plus an optional else
expression at the end, which defaults to None. if checks each test in turn, and selects
the then corresponding to the first passed test. if does not evaluate any expressions
following its selection, similar to the if/elif/else control structure from Python. If no
tests pass, if selects else.
The if* special form is restricted to 2 or 3 arguments, but otherwise works exactly like
if (which expands to nested if* forms), so there is generally no reason to use it
directly.
if-not is similar to if* but the second expression will be executed when the condition
fails while the third and final expression is executed when the test succeeds -- the
opposite order of if*. The final expression is again optional and defaults to None.
Example usage:
(print (if (< n 0.0) "negative"
(= n 0.0) "zero"
(> n 0.0) "positive"
"not a number"))
(if* (money-left? account)
(print "let's go shopping")
(print "let's go and work"))
(if-not (money-left? account)
(print "let's go and work")
(print "let's go shopping"))
lif and lif-not
New in version 0.10.0.
New in version 0.11.0: lif-not
For those that prefer a more Lispy if clause, we have lif. This only considers None to be
false! All other "false-ish" Python values are considered true. Conversely, we have
lif-not in parallel to if and if-not which reverses the comparison.
=> (lif True "true" "false")
"true"
=> (lif False "true" "false")
"true"
=> (lif 0 "true" "false")
"true"
=> (lif None "true" "false")
"false"
=> (lif-not None "true" "false")
"true"
=> (lif-not False "true" "false")
"false"
import
import is used to import modules, like in Python. There are several ways that import can
be used.
;; Imports each of these modules
;;
;; Python:
;; import sys
;; import os.path
(import sys os.path)
;; Import from a module
;;
;; Python: from os.path import exists, isdir, isfile
(import [os.path [exists isdir isfile]])
;; Import with an alias
;;
;; Python: import sys as systest
(import [sys :as systest])
;; You can list as many imports as you like of different types.
;;
;; Python:
;; from tests.resources import kwtest, function_with_a_dash
;; from os.path import exists, isdir as is_dir, isfile as is_file
;; import sys as systest
(import [tests.resources [kwtest function-with-a-dash]]
[os.path [exists
isdir :as dir?
isfile :as file?]]
[sys :as systest])
;; Import all module functions into current namespace
;;
;; Python: from sys import *
(import [sys [*]])
lambda / fn
lambda and fn can be used to define an anonymous function. The parameters are similar to
defn: the first parameter is vector of parameters and the rest is the body of the
function. lambda returns a new function. In the following example, an anonymous function
is defined and passed to another function for filtering output.
=> (def people [{:name "Alice" :age 20}
... {:name "Bob" :age 25}
... {:name "Charlie" :age 50}
... {:name "Dave" :age 5}])
=> (defn display-people [people filter]
... (for [person people] (if (filter person) (print (:name person)))))
=> (display-people people (fn [person] (< (:age person) 25)))
Alice
Dave
Just as in normal function definitions, if the first element of the body is a string, it
serves as a docstring. This is useful for giving class methods docstrings.
=> (setv times-three
... (fn [x]
... "Multiplies input by three and returns the result."
... (* x 3)))
This can be confirmed via Python's built-in help function:
=> (help times-three)
Help on function times_three:
times_three(x)
Multiplies input by three and returns result
(END)
last
New in version 0.11.0.
last can be used for accessing the last element of a collection:
=> (last [2 4 6])
6
let
let is used to create lexically scoped variables. They are created at the beginning of the
let form and cease to exist after the form. The following example showcases this
behaviour:
=> (let [x 5] (print x)
... (let [x 6] (print x))
... (print x))
5
6
5
The let macro takes two parameters: a vector defining variables and the body which gets
executed. variables is a vector of variable and value pairs.
Note that the variable assignments are executed one by one, from left to right. The
following example takes advantage of this:
=> (let [x 5
y (+ x 1)] (print x y))
5 6
list-comp
list-comp performs list comprehensions. It takes two or three parameters. The first
parameter is the expression controlling the return value, while the second is used to
select items from a list. The third and optional parameter can be used to filter out some
of the items in the list based on a conditional expression. Some examples:
=> (def collection (range 10))
=> (list-comp x [x collection])
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (list-comp (* x 2) [x collection])
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18]
=> (list-comp (* x 2) [x collection] (< x 5))
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
nonlocal
New in version 0.11.1.
PYTHON 3.0 AND UP ONLY!
nonlocal can be used to mark a symbol as not local to the current scope. The parameters
are the names of symbols to mark as nonlocal. This is necessary to modify variables
through nested let or fn scopes:
(let [x 0]
(for [y (range 10)]
(let [z (inc y)]
(nonlocal x) ; allow the setv to "jump scope" to resolve x
(setv x (+ x y))))
x)
(defn some-function []
(let [x 0]
(register-some-callback
(fn [stuff]
(nonlocal x)
(setv x stuff)))))
In the first example, without the call to (nonlocal x), this code would result in an
UnboundLocalError being raised during the call to setv.
In the second example, without the call to (nonlocal x), the inner function would redefine
x to stuff inside its local scope instead of overwriting the x in the outer function
See PEP3104 for further information.
not
not is used in logical expressions. It takes a single parameter and returns a reversed
truth value. If True is given as a parameter, False will be returned, and vice-versa.
Example usage:
=> (not True)
False
=> (not False)
True
=> (not None)
True
or
or is used in logical expressions. It takes at least two parameters. It will return the
first non-false parameter. If no such value exists, the last parameter will be returned.
=> (or True False)
True
=> (and False False)
False
=> (and False 1 True False)
1
NOTE:
or short-circuits and stops evaluating parameters as soon as the first true value is
encountered.
=> (or True (print "hello"))
True
print
print is used to output on screen. Example usage:
(print "Hello world!")
NOTE:
print always returns None.
quasiquote
quasiquote allows you to quote a form, but also selectively evaluate expressions.
Expressions inside a quasiquote can be selectively evaluated using unquote (~). The
evaluated form can also be spliced using unquote-splice (~@). Quasiquote can be also
written using the backquote (`) symbol.
;; let `qux' be a variable with value (bar baz)
`(foo ~qux)
; equivalent to '(foo (bar baz))
`(foo ~@qux)
; equivalent to '(foo bar baz)
quote
quote returns the form passed to it without evaluating it. quote can alternatively be
written using the apostrophe (') symbol.
=> (setv x '(print "Hello World"))
; variable x is set to expression & not evaluated
=> x
(u'print' u'Hello World')
=> (eval x)
Hello World
require
require is used to import macros from one or more given modules. It allows parameters in
all the same formats as import. The require form itself produces no code in the final
program: its effect is purely at compile-time, for the benefit of macro expansion.
Specifically, require imports each named module and then makes each requested macro
available in the current module.
The following are all equivalent ways to call a macro named foo in the module mymodule:
(require mymodule)
(mymodule.foo 1)
(require [mymodule :as M])
(M.foo 1)
(require [mymodule [foo]])
(foo 1)
(require [mymodule [*]])
(foo 1)
(require [mymodule [foo :as bar]])
(bar 1)
Macros that call macros
One aspect of require that may be surprising is what happens when one macro's expansion
calls another macro. Suppose mymodule.hy looks like this:
(defmacro repexpr [n expr]
; Evaluate the expression n times
; and collect the results in a list.
`(list (map (fn [_] ~expr) (range ~n))))
(defmacro foo [n]
`(repexpr ~n (input "Gimme some input: ")))
And then, in your main program, you write:
(require [mymodule [foo]])
(print (mymodule.foo 3))
Running this raises NameError: name 'repexpr' is not defined, even though writing (print
(foo 3)) in mymodule works fine. The trouble is that your main program doesn't have the
macro repexpr available, since it wasn't imported (and imported under exactly that name,
as opposed to a qualified name). You could do (require [mymodule [*]]) or (require
[mymodule [foo repexpr]]), but a less error-prone approach is to change the definition of
foo to require whatever sub-macros it needs:
(defmacro foo [n]
`(do
(require mymodule)
(mymodule.repexpr ~n (raw-input "Gimme some input: "))))
It's wise to use (require mymodule) here rather than (require [mymodule [repexpr]]) to
avoid accidentally shadowing a function named repexpr in the main program.
Qualified macro names
Note that in the current implementation, there's a trick in qualified macro names, like
mymodule.foo and M.foo in the above example. These names aren't actually attributes of
module objects; they're just identifiers with periods in them. In fact, mymodule and M
aren't defined by these require forms, even at compile-time. None of this will hurt you
unless try to do introspection of the current module's set of defined macros, which isn't
really supported anyway.
rest / cdr
rest and cdr return the collection passed as an argument without the first element:
=> (rest (range 10))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
set-comp
set-comp is used to create sets. It takes two or three parameters. The first parameter is
for controlling the return value, while the second is used to select items from a
sequence. The third and optional parameter can be used to filter out some of the items in
the sequence based on a conditional expression.
=> (setv data [1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 3 4 5])
=> (set-comp x [x data] (odd? x))
{1, 3, 5}
cut
cut can be used to take a subset of a list and create a new list from it. The form takes
at least one parameter specifying the list to cut. Two optional parameters can be used to
give the start and end position of the subset. If they are not supplied, the default value
of None will be used instead. The third optional parameter is used to control step between
the elements.
cut follows the same rules as its Python counterpart. Negative indices are counted
starting from the end of the list. Some example usage:
=> (def collection (range 10))
=> (cut collection)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (cut collection 5)
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (cut collection 2 8)
[2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
=> (cut collection 2 8 2)
[2, 4, 6]
=> (cut collection -4 -2)
[6, 7]
raise
The raise form can be used to raise an Exception at runtime. Example usage:
(raise)
; re-rase the last exception
(raise IOError)
; raise an IOError
(raise (IOError "foobar"))
; raise an IOError("foobar")
raise can accept a single argument (an Exception class or instance) or no arguments to
re-raise the last Exception.
try
The try form is used to start a try / except block. The form is used as follows:
(try
(error-prone-function)
(except [e ZeroDivisionError] (print "Division by zero"))
(else (print "no errors"))
(finally (print "all done")))
try must contain at least one except block, and may optionally include an else or finally
block. If an error is raised with a matching except block during the execution of
error-prone-function, that except block will be executed. If no errors are raised, the
else block is executed. The finally block will be executed last regardless of whether or
not an error was raised.
unless
The unless macro is a shorthand for writing an if statement that checks if the given
conditional is False. The following shows the expansion of this macro.
(unless conditional statement)
(if conditional
None
(do statement))
unquote
Within a quasiquoted form, unquote forces evaluation of a symbol. unquote is aliased to
the tilde (~) symbol.
(def name "Cuddles")
(quasiquote (= name (unquote name)))
;=> (u'=' u'name' u'Cuddles')
`(= name ~name)
;=> (u'=' u'name' u'Cuddles')
unquote-splice
unquote-splice forces the evaluation of a symbol within a quasiquoted form, much like
unquote. unquote-splice can only be used when the symbol being unquoted contains an
iterable value, as it "splices" that iterable into the quasiquoted form. unquote-splice is
aliased to the ~@ symbol.
(def nums [1 2 3 4])
(quasiquote (+ (unquote-splice nums)))
;=> (u'+' 1L 2L 3L 4L)
`(+ ~@nums)
;=> (u'+' 1L 2L 3L 4L)
when
when is similar to unless, except it tests when the given conditional is True. It is not
possible to have an else block in a when macro. The following shows the expansion of the
macro.
(when conditional statement)
(if conditional (do statement))
while
while is used to execute one or more blocks as long as a condition is met. The following
example will output "Hello world!" to the screen indefinitely:
(while True (print "Hello world!"))
with
with is used to wrap the execution of a block within a context manager. The context
manager can then set up the local system and tear it down in a controlled manner. The
archetypical example of using with is when processing files. with can bind context to an
argument or ignore it completely, as shown below:
(with [arg (expr)] block)
(with [(expr)] block)
(with [arg (expr) (expr)] block)
The following example will open the NEWS file and print its content to the screen. The
file is automatically closed after it has been processed.
(with [f (open "NEWS")] (print (.read f)))
with-decorator
with-decorator is used to wrap a function with another. The function performing the
decoration should accept a single value: the function being decorated, and return a new
function. with-decorator takes a minimum of two parameters: the function performing
decoration and the function being decorated. More than one decorator function can be
applied; they will be applied in order from outermost to innermost, ie. the first
decorator will be the outermost one, and so on. Decorators with arguments are called just
like a function call.
(with-decorator decorator-fun
(defn some-function [] ...)
(with-decorator decorator1 decorator2 ...
(defn some-function [] ...)
(with-decorator (decorator arg) ..
(defn some-function [] ...)
In the following example, inc-decorator is used to decorate the function addition with a
function that takes two parameters and calls the decorated function with values that are
incremented by 1. When the decorated addition is called with values 1 and 1, the end
result will be 4 (1+1 + 1+1).
=> (defn inc-decorator [func]
... (fn [value-1 value-2] (func (+ value-1 1) (+ value-2 1))))
=> (defn inc2-decorator [func]
... (fn [value-1 value-2] (func (+ value-1 2) (+ value-2 2))))
=> (with-decorator inc-decorator (defn addition [a b] (+ a b)))
=> (addition 1 1)
4
=> (with-decorator inc2-decorator inc-decorator
... (defn addition [a b] (+ a b)))
=> (addition 1 1)
8
#@
New in version 0.12.0.
The reader macro #@ can be used as a shorthand for with-decorator. With #@, the previous
example becomes:
=> #@(inc-decorator (defn addition [a b] (+ a b)))
=> (addition 1 1)
4
=> #@(inc2-decorator inc-decorator
... (defn addition [a b] (+ a b)))
=> (addition 1 1)
8
with-gensyms
New in version 0.9.12.
with-gensym is used to generate a set of gensym for use in a macro. The following code:
(with-gensyms [a b c]
...)
expands to:
(let [a (gensym)
b (gensym)
c (gensym)]
...)
SEE ALSO:
Section using-gensym
xor
New in version 0.12.0.
xor is used in logical expressions to perform exclusive or. It takes two parameters. It
returns True if only of the parameters is True. In all other cases False is returned.
Example usage:
=> (xor True False)
True
=> (xor True True)
False
=> (xor [] [0])
True
yield
yield is used to create a generator object that returns one or more values. The generator
is iterable and therefore can be used in loops, list comprehensions and other similar
constructs.
The function random-numbers shows how generators can be used to generate infinite series
without consuming infinite amount of memory.
=> (defn multiply [bases coefficients]
... (for [(, base coefficient) (zip bases coefficients)]
... (yield (* base coefficient))))
=> (multiply (range 5) (range 5))
<generator object multiply at 0x978d8ec>
=> (list-comp value [value (multiply (range 10) (range 10))])
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
=> (import random)
=> (defn random-numbers [low high]
... (while True (yield (.randint random low high))))
=> (list-comp x [x (take 15 (random-numbers 1 50))])
[7, 41, 6, 22, 32, 17, 5, 38, 18, 38, 17, 14, 23, 23, 19]
yield-from
New in version 0.9.13.
PYTHON 3.3 AND UP ONLY!
yield-from is used to call a subgenerator. This is useful if you want your coroutine to
be able to delegate its processes to another coroutine, say, if using something fancy like
asyncio.
Hy Core
Core Functions
butlast
Usage: (butlast coll)
Returns an iterator of all but the last item in coll.
=> (list (butlast (range 10)))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
=> (list (butlast [1]))
[]
=> (list (butlast []))
[]
=> (list (take 5 (butlast (count 10))))
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]
coll?
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (coll? x)
Returns True if x is iterable and not a string.
=> (coll? [1 2 3 4])
True
=> (coll? {"a" 1 "b" 2})
True
=> (coll? "abc")
False
comp
Usage: (comp f g)
Compose zero or more functions into a new function. The new function will chain the given
functions together, so ((comp g f) x) is equivalent to (g (f x)). Called without
arguments, comp returns identity.
=> (def example (comp str +))
=> (example 1 2 3)
"6"
=> (def simple (comp))
=> (simple "hello")
"hello"
complement
New in version 0.12.0.
Usage: (complement f)
Returns a new function that returns the same thing as f, but logically inverted. So,
((complement f) x) is equivalent to (not (f x)).
=> (def inverse (complement identity))
=> (inverse True)
False
=> (inverse 1)
False
=> (inverse False)
True
cons
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (cons a b)
Returns a fresh cons cell with car a and cdr b.
=> (setv a (cons 'hd 'tl))
=> (= 'hd (car a))
True
=> (= 'tl (cdr a))
True
cons?
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (cons? foo)
Checks whether foo is a cons cell.
=> (setv a (cons 'hd 'tl))
=> (cons? a)
True
=> (cons? None)
False
=> (cons? [1 2 3])
False
constantly
New in version 0.12.0.
Usage (constantly 42)
Create a new function that always returns the given value, regardless of the arguments
given to it.
=> (def answer (constantly 42))
=> (answer)
42
=> (answer 1 2 3)
42
=> (answer 1 :foo 2)
42
dec
Usage: (dec x)
Returns one less than x. Equivalent to (- x 1). Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (dec 3)
2
=> (dec 0)
-1
=> (dec 12.3)
11.3
disassemble
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (disassemble tree &optional [codegen false])
Dump the Python AST for given Hy tree to standard output. If codegen is True, the function
prints Python code instead.
=> (disassemble '(print "Hello World!"))
Module(
body=[
Expr(value=Call(func=Name(id='print'), args=[Str(s='Hello World!')], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None))])
=> (disassemble '(print "Hello World!") True)
print('Hello World!')
empty?
Usage: (empty? coll)
Returns True if coll is empty. Equivalent to (= 0 (len coll)).
=> (empty? [])
True
=> (empty? "")
True
=> (empty? (, 1 2))
False
every?
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (every? pred coll)
Returns True if (pred x) is logical true for every x in coll, otherwise False. Return True
if coll is empty.
=> (every? even? [2 4 6])
True
=> (every? even? [1 3 5])
False
=> (every? even? [2 4 5])
False
=> (every? even? [])
True
float?
Usage: (float? x)
Returns True if x is a float.
=> (float? 3.2)
True
=> (float? -2)
False
fraction
Returns a Python object of type fractions.Fraction.
=> (fraction 1 2)
Fraction(1, 2)
Note that Hy has a built-in fraction literal that does the same thing:
=> 1/2
Fraction(1, 2)
even?
Usage: (even? x)
Returns True if x is even. Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (even? 2)
True
=> (even? 13)
False
=> (even? 0)
True
identity
Usage: (identity x)
Returns the argument supplied to the function.
=> (identity 4)
4
=> (list (map identity [1 2 3 4]))
[1 2 3 4]
inc
Usage: (inc x)
Returns one more than x. Equivalent to (+ x 1). Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (inc 3)
4
=> (inc 0)
1
=> (inc 12.3)
13.3
instance?
Usage: (instance? class x)
Returns True if x is an instance of class.
=> (instance? float 1.0)
True
=> (instance? int 7)
True
=> (instance? str (str "foo"))
True
=> (defclass TestClass [object])
=> (setv inst (TestClass))
=> (instance? TestClass inst)
True
integer?
Usage: (integer? x)
Returns True if x is an integer. For Python 2, this is either int or long. For Python 3,
this is int.
=> (integer? 3)
True
=> (integer? -2.4)
False
interleave
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (interleave seq1 seq2 ...)
Returns an iterable of the first item in each of the sequences, then the second, etc.
=> (list (interleave (range 5) (range 100 105)))
[0, 100, 1, 101, 2, 102, 3, 103, 4, 104]
=> (list (interleave (range 1000000) "abc"))
[0, 'a', 1, 'b', 2, 'c']
interpose
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (interpose item seq)
Returns an iterable of the elements of the sequence separated by the item.
=> (list (interpose "!" "abcd"))
['a', '!', 'b', '!', 'c', '!', 'd']
=> (list (interpose -1 (range 5)))
[0, -1, 1, -1, 2, -1, 3, -1, 4]
iterable?
Usage: (iterable? x)
Returns True if x is iterable. Iterable objects return a new iterator when (iter x) is
called. Contrast with iterator?.
=> ;; works for strings
=> (iterable? (str "abcde"))
True
=> ;; works for lists
=> (iterable? [1 2 3 4 5])
True
=> ;; works for tuples
=> (iterable? (, 1 2 3))
True
=> ;; works for dicts
=> (iterable? {:a 1 :b 2 :c 3})
True
=> ;; works for iterators/generators
=> (iterable? (repeat 3))
True
iterator?
Usage: (iterator? x)
Returns True if x is an iterator. Iterators are objects that return themselves as an
iterator when (iter x) is called. Contrast with iterable?.
=> ;; doesn't work for a list
=> (iterator? [1 2 3 4 5])
False
=> ;; but we can get an iter from the list
=> (iterator? (iter [1 2 3 4 5]))
True
=> ;; doesn't work for dict
=> (iterator? {:a 1 :b 2 :c 3})
False
=> ;; create an iterator from the dict
=> (iterator? (iter {:a 1 :b 2 :c 3}))
True
juxt
New in version 0.12.0.
Usage: (juxt f &rest fs)
Return a function that applies each of the supplied functions to a single set of arguments
and collects the results into a list.
=> ((juxt min max sum) (range 1 101))
[1, 100, 5050]
=> (dict (map (juxt identity ord) "abcdef"))
{'f': 102, 'd': 100, 'b': 98, 'e': 101, 'c': 99, 'a': 97}
=> ((juxt + - * /) 24 3)
[27, 21, 72, 8.0]
keyword
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (keyword "foo")
Create a keyword from the given value. Strings, numbers, and even objects with the
__name__ magic will work.
=> (keyword "foo")
u'\ufdd0:foo'
=> (keyword 1)
u'\ufdd0:1'
keyword?
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (keyword? foo)
Check whether foo is a keyword.
=> (keyword? :foo)
True
=> (setv foo 1)
=> (keyword? foo)
False
list*
Usage: (list* head &rest tail)
Generates a chain of nested cons cells (a dotted list) containing the arguments. If the
argument list only has one element, return it.
=> (list* 1 2 3 4)
(1 2 3 . 4)
=> (list* 1 2 3 [4])
[1, 2, 3, 4]
=> (list* 1)
1
=> (cons? (list* 1 2 3 4))
True
macroexpand
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (macroexpand form)
Returns the full macro expansion of form.
=> (macroexpand '(-> (a b) (x y)))
(u'x' (u'a' u'b') u'y')
=> (macroexpand '(-> (a b) (-> (c d) (e f))))
(u'e' (u'c' (u'a' u'b') u'd') u'f')
macroexpand-1
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (macroexpand-1 form)
Returns the single step macro expansion of form.
=> (macroexpand-1 '(-> (a b) (-> (c d) (e f))))
(u'_>' (u'a' u'b') (u'c' u'd') (u'e' u'f'))
merge-with
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (merge-with f &rest maps)
Returns a map that consist of the rest of the maps joined onto first. If a key occurs in
more than one map, the mapping(s) from the latter (left-to-right) will be combined with
the mapping in the result by calling (f val-in-result val-in-latter).
=> (merge-with (fn [x y] (+ x y)) {"a" 10 "b" 20} {"a" 1 "c" 30})
{u'a': 11L, u'c': 30L, u'b': 20L}
name
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (name :keyword)
Convert the given value to a string. Keyword special character will be stripped. Strings
will be used as is. Even objects with the __name__ magic will work.
=> (name :foo)
u'foo'
neg?
Usage: (neg? x)
Returns True if x is less than zero. Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (neg? -2)
True
=> (neg? 3)
False
=> (neg? 0)
False
none?
Usage: (none? x)
Returns True if x is None.
=> (none? None)
True
=> (none? 0)
False
=> (setf x None)
=> (none? x)
True
=> ;; list.append always returns None
=> (none? (.append [1 2 3] 4))
True
nth
Usage: (nth coll n &optional [default None])
Returns the n-th item in a collection, counting from 0. Return the default value, None, if
out of bounds (unless specified otherwise). Raises ValueError if n is negative.
=> (nth [1 2 4 7] 1)
2
=> (nth [1 2 4 7] 3)
7
=> (none? (nth [1 2 4 7] 5))
True
=> (nth [1 2 4 7] 5 "default")
'default'
=> (nth (take 3 (drop 2 [1 2 3 4 5 6])) 2))
5
=> (nth [1 2 4 7] -1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Indices for islice() must be None or an integer: 0 <= x <= sys.maxsize.
numeric?
Usage: (numeric? x)
Returns True if x is a numeric, as defined in Python's numbers.Number class.
=> (numeric? -2)
True
=> (numeric? 3.2)
True
=> (numeric? "foo")
False
odd?
Usage: (odd? x)
Returns True if x is odd. Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (odd? 13)
True
=> (odd? 2)
False
=> (odd? 0)
False
partition
Usage: (partition coll [n] [step] [fillvalue])
Chunks coll into n-tuples (pairs by default).
=> (list (partition (range 10))) ; n=2
[(, 0 1) (, 2 3) (, 4 5) (, 6 7) (, 8 9)]
The step defaults to n, but can be more to skip elements, or less for a sliding window
with overlap.
=> (list (partition (range 10) 2 3))
[(, 0 1) (, 3 4) (, 6 7)]
=> (list (partition (range 5) 2 1))
[(, 0 1) (, 1 2) (, 2 3) (, 3 4)])
The remainder, if any, is not included unless a fillvalue is specified.
=> (list (partition (range 10) 3))
[(, 0 1 2) (, 3 4 5) (, 6 7 8)]
=> (list (partition (range 10) 3 :fillvalue "x"))
[(, 0 1 2) (, 3 4 5) (, 6 7 8) (, 9 "x" "x")]
pos?
Usage: (pos? x)
Returns True if x is greater than zero. Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (pos? 3)
True
=> (pos? -2)
False
=> (pos? 0)
False
second
Usage: (second coll)
Returns the second member of coll. Equivalent to (get coll 1).
=> (second [0 1 2])
1
some
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (some pred coll)
Returns the first logically-true value of (pred x) for any x in coll, otherwise None.
Return None if coll is empty.
=> (some even? [2 4 6])
True
=> (none? (some even? [1 3 5]))
True
=> (none? (some identity [0 "" []]))
True
=> (some identity [0 "non-empty-string" []])
'non-empty-string'
=> (none? (some even? []))
True
string?
Usage: (string? x)
Returns True if x is a string.
=> (string? "foo")
True
=> (string? -2)
False
symbol?
Usage: (symbol? x)
Returns True if x is a symbol.
=> (symbol? 'foo)
True
=> (symbol? '[a b c])
False
zero?
Usage: (zero? x)
Returns True if x is zero.
=> (zero? 3)
False
=> (zero? -2)
False
=> (zero? 0)
True
Sequence Functions
Sequence functions can either create or operate on a potentially infinite sequence without
requiring the sequence be fully realized in a list or similar container. They do this by
returning a Python iterator.
We can use the canonical infinite Fibonacci number generator as an example of how to use
some of these functions.
(defn fib []
(setv a 0)
(setv b 1)
(while True
(yield a)
(setv (, a b) (, b (+ a b)))))
Note the (while True ...) loop. If we run this in the REPL,
=> (fib)
<generator object fib at 0x101e642d0>
Calling the function only returns an iterator, but does no work until we consume it.
Trying something like this is not recommend as the infinite loop will run until it
consumes all available RAM, or in this case until I killed it.
=> (list (fib))
[1] 91474 killed hy
To get the first 10 Fibonacci numbers, use take. Note that take also returns a generator,
so I create a list from it.
=> (list (take 10 (fib)))
[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34]
To get the Fibonacci number at index 9, (starting from 0):
=> (nth (fib) 9)
34
cycle
Usage: (cycle coll)
Returns an infinite iterator of the members of coll.
=> (list (take 7 (cycle [1 2 3])))
[1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1]
=> (list (take 2 (cycle [1 2 3])))
[1, 2]
distinct
Usage: (distinct coll)
Returns an iterator containing only the unique members in coll.
=> (list (distinct [ 1 2 3 4 3 5 2 ]))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
=> (list (distinct []))
[]
=> (list (distinct (iter [ 1 2 3 4 3 5 2 ])))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
drop
Usage: (drop n coll)
Returns an iterator, skipping the first n members of coll. Raises ValueError if n is
negative.
=> (list (drop 2 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[3, 4, 5]
=> (list (drop 4 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[5]
=> (list (drop 0 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
=> (list (drop 6 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[]
drop-last
Usage: (drop-last n coll)
Returns an iterator of all but the last n items in coll. Raises ValueError if n is
negative.
=> (list (drop-last 5 (range 10 20)))
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]
=> (list (drop-last 0 (range 5)))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
=> (list (drop-last 100 (range 100)))
[]
=> (list (take 5 (drop-last 100 (count 10))))
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]
drop-while
Usage: (drop-while pred coll)
Returns an iterator, skipping members of coll until pred is False.
=> (list (drop-while even? [2 4 7 8 9]))
[7, 8, 9]
=> (list (drop-while numeric? [1 2 3 None "a"])))
[None, u'a']
=> (list (drop-while pos? [2 4 7 8 9]))
[]
filter
Usage: (filter pred coll)
Returns an iterator for all items in coll that pass the predicate pred.
See also remove.
=> (list (filter pos? [1 2 3 -4 5 -7]))
[1, 2, 3, 5]
=> (list (filter even? [1 2 3 -4 5 -7]))
[2, -4]
flatten
New in version 0.9.12.
Usage: (flatten coll)
Returns a single list of all the items in coll, by flattening all contained lists and/or
tuples.
=> (flatten [1 2 [3 4] 5])
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
=> (flatten ["foo" (, 1 2) [1 [2 3] 4] "bar"])
['foo', 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 'bar']
iterate
Usage: (iterate fn x)
Returns an iterator of x, fn(x), fn(fn(x)), etc.
=> (list (take 5 (iterate inc 5)))
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (list (take 5 (iterate (fn [x] (* x x)) 5)))
[5, 25, 625, 390625, 152587890625]
read
Usage: (read &optional [from-file eof])
Reads the next Hy expression from from-file (defaulting to sys.stdin), and can take a
single byte as EOF (defaults to an empty string). Raises EOFError if from-file ends before
a complete expression can be parsed.
=> (read)
(+ 2 2)
('+' 2 2)
=> (eval (read))
(+ 2 2)
4
=> (import io)
=> (def buffer (io.StringIO "(+ 2 2)\n(- 2 1)"))
=> (eval (apply read [] {"from_file" buffer}))
4
=> (eval (apply read [] {"from_file" buffer}))
1
=> ; assuming "example.hy" contains:
=> ; (print "hello")
=> ; (print "hyfriends!")
=> (with [f (open "example.hy")]
... (try
... (while True
... (let [exp (read f)]
... (do
... (print "OHY" exp)
... (eval exp))))
... (except [e EOFError]
... (print "EOF!"))))
OHY ('print' 'hello')
hello
OHY ('print' 'hyfriends!')
hyfriends!
EOF!
read-str
Usage: (read-str "string")
This is essentially a wrapper around read which reads expressions from a string:
=> (read-str "(print 1)")
(u'print' 1L)
=> (eval (read-str "(print 1)"))
1
=>
remove
Usage: (remove pred coll)
Returns an iterator from coll with elements that pass the predicate, pred, removed.
See also filter.
=> (list (remove odd? [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[2, 4, 6]
=> (list (remove pos? [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[]
=> (list (remove neg? [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
repeat
Usage: (repeat x)
Returns an iterator (infinite) of x.
=> (list (take 6 (repeat "s")))
[u's', u's', u's', u's', u's', u's']
repeatedly
Usage: (repeatedly fn)
Returns an iterator by calling fn repeatedly.
=> (import [random [randint]])
=> (list (take 5 (repeatedly (fn [] (randint 0 10)))))
[6, 2, 0, 6, 7]
take
Usage: (take n coll)
Returns an iterator containing the first n members of coll. Raises ValueError if n is
negative.
=> (list (take 3 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[1, 2, 3]
=> (list (take 4 (repeat "s")))
[u's', u's', u's', u's']
=> (list (take 0 (repeat "s")))
[]
take-nth
Usage: (take-nth n coll)
Returns an iterator containing every n-th member of coll.
=> (list (take-nth 2 [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1, 3, 5, 7]
=> (list (take-nth 3 [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1, 4, 7]
=> (list (take-nth 4 [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1, 5]
=> (list (take-nth 10 [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1]
take-while
Usage: (take-while pred coll)
Returns an iterator from coll as long as pred returns True.
=> (list (take-while pos? [ 1 2 3 -4 5]))
[1, 2, 3]
=> (list (take-while neg? [ -4 -3 1 2 5]))
[-4, -3]
=> (list (take-while neg? [ 1 2 3 -4 5]))
[]
Other Built-Ins
hy.core.reserved
Usage: (hy.core.reserved.names)
This module can be used to get a list (actually, a frozenset) of the names of Hy's
built-in functions, macros, and special forms. The output also includes all Python
reserved words. All names are in unmangled form (e.g., list-comp rather than list_comp).
=> (import hy)
=> (in "defclass" (hy.core.reserved.names))
True
Included itertools
count cycle repeat accumulate chain compress drop-while remove group-by islice
*
map take-while tee zip-longest product permutations combinations multicombinations
All of Python's itertools are available. Some of their names have been changed:
• starmap has been changed to *map
• combinations_with_replacement has been changed to multicombinations
• groupby has been changed to group-by
• takewhile has been changed to take-while
• dropwhile has been changed to drop-while
• filterfalse has been changed to remove
Reader Macros
Reader macros gives Lisp the power to modify and alter syntax on the fly. You don't want
Polish notation? A reader macro can easily do just that. Want Clojure's way of having a
regex? Reader macros can also do this easily.
Syntax
=> (defreader ^ [expr] (print expr))
=> #^(1 2 3 4)
(1 2 3 4)
=> #^"Hello"
"Hello"
=> #^1+2+3+4+3+2
1+2+3+4+3+2
Hy has no literal for tuples. Lets say you dislike (, ...) and want something else. This
is a problem reader macros are able to solve in a neat way.
=> (defreader t [expr] `(, ~@expr))
=> #t(1 2 3)
(1, 2, 3)
You could even do it like Clojure and have a literal for regular expressions!
=> (import re)
=> (defreader r [expr] `(re.compile ~expr))
=> #r".*"
<_sre.SRE_Pattern object at 0xcv7713ph15#>
Implementation
defreader takes a single character as symbol name for the reader macro; anything longer
will return an error. Implementation-wise, defreader expands into a lambda covered with a
decorator. This decorator saves the lambda in a dictionary with its module name and
symbol.
=> (defreader ^ [expr] (print expr))
;=> (with_decorator (hy.macros.reader ^) (fn [expr] (print expr)))
# expands into (dispatch_reader_macro ...) where the symbol and expression is passed to
the correct function.
=> #^()
;=> (dispatch_reader_macro ^ ())
=> #^"Hello"
"Hello"
WARNING:
Because of a limitation in Hy's lexer and parser, reader macros can't redefine defined
syntax such as ()[]{}. This will most likely be addressed in the future.
Internal Hy Documentation
NOTE:
These bits are mostly useful for folks who hack on Hy itself, but can also be used for
those delving deeper in macro programming.
Hy Models
Introduction to Hy Models
Hy models are a very thin layer on top of regular Python objects, representing Hy source
code as data. Models only add source position information, and a handful of methods to
support clean manipulation of Hy source code, for instance in macros. To achieve that
goal, Hy models are mixins of a base Python class and HyObject.
HyObject
hy.models.HyObject is the base class of Hy models. It only implements one method, replace,
which replaces the source position of the current object with the one passed as argument.
This allows us to keep track of the original position of expressions that get modified by
macros, be that in the compiler or in pure hy macros.
HyObject is not intended to be used directly to instantiate Hy models, but only as a mixin
for other classes.
Compound Models
Parenthesized and bracketed lists are parsed as compound models by the Hy parser.
HyList
hy.models.list.HyList is the base class of "iterable" Hy models. Its basic use is to
represent bracketed [] lists, which, when used as a top-level expression, translate to
Python list literals in the compilation phase.
Adding a HyList to another iterable object reuses the class of the left-hand-side object,
a useful behavior when you want to concatenate Hy objects in a macro, for instance.
HyExpression
hy.models.expression.HyExpression inherits HyList for parenthesized () expressions. The
compilation result of those expressions depends on the first element of the list: the
compiler dispatches expressions between compiler special-forms, user-defined macros, and
regular Python function calls.
HyDict
hy.models.dict.HyDict inherits HyList for curly-bracketed {} expressions, which compile
down to a Python dictionary literal.
The decision of using a list instead of a dict as the base class for HyDict allows easier
manipulation of dicts in macros, with the added benefit of allowing compound expressions
as dict keys (as, for instance, the HyExpression Python class isn't hashable).
Atomic Models
In the input stream, double-quoted strings, respecting the Python notation for strings,
are parsed as a single token, which is directly parsed as a HyString.
An uninterrupted string of characters, excluding spaces, brackets, quotes, double-quotes
and comments, is parsed as an identifier.
Identifiers are resolved to atomic models during the parsing phase in the following order:
• HyInteger
• HyFloat
• HyComplex (if the atom isn't a bare j)
• HyKeyword (if the atom starts with :)
• HySymbol
HyString
hy.models.string.HyString is the base class of string-equivalent Hy models. It also
represents double-quoted string literals, "", which compile down to unicode string
literals in Python. HyStrings inherit unicode objects in Python 2, and string objects in
Python 3 (and are therefore not encoding-dependent).
HyString based models are immutable.
Hy literal strings can span multiple lines, and are considered by the parser as a single
unit, respecting the Python escapes for unicode strings.
Numeric Models
hy.models.integer.HyInteger represents integer literals (using the long type on Python 2,
and int on Python 3).
hy.models.float.HyFloat represents floating-point literals.
hy.models.complex.HyComplex represents complex literals.
Numeric models are parsed using the corresponding Python routine, and valid numeric python
literals will be turned into their Hy counterpart.
HySymbol
hy.models.symbol.HySymbol is the model used to represent symbols in the Hy language. It
inherits HyString.
HySymbol objects are mangled in the parsing phase, to help Python interoperability:
• Symbols surrounded by asterisks (*) are turned into uppercase;
• Dashes (-) are turned into underscores (_);
• One trailing question mark (?) is turned into a leading is_.
Caveat: as the mangling is done during the parsing phase, it is possible to
programmatically generate HySymbols that can't be generated with Hy source code. Such a
mechanism is used by gensym to generate "uninterned" symbols.
HyKeyword
hy.models.keyword.HyKeyword represents keywords in Hy. Keywords are symbols starting with
a :. The class inherits HyString.
To distinguish HyKeywords from HySymbols, without the possibility of (involuntary)
clashes, the private-use unicode character "\uFDD0" is prepended to the keyword literal
before storage.
Cons Cells
hy.models.cons.HyCons is a representation of Python-friendly cons cells. Cons cells are
especially useful to mimic features of "usual" LISP variants such as Scheme or Common
Lisp.
A cons cell is a 2-item object, containing a car (head) and a cdr (tail). In some Lisp
variants, the cons cell is the fundamental building block, and S-expressions are actually
represented as linked lists of cons cells. This is not the case in Hy, as the usual
expressions are made of Python lists wrapped in a HyExpression. However, the HyCons mimics
the behavior of "usual" Lisp variants thusly:
• (cons something None) is (HyExpression [something])
• (cons something some-list) is ((type some-list) (+ [something] some-list)) (if
some-list inherits from list).
• (get (cons a b) 0) is a
• (cut (cons a b) 1) is b
Hy supports a dotted-list syntax, where '(a . b) means (cons 'a 'b) and '(a b . c) means
(cons 'a (cons 'b 'c)). If the compiler encounters a cons cell at the top level, it raises
a compilation error.
HyCons wraps the passed arguments (car and cdr) in Hy types, to ease the manipulation of
cons cells in a macro context.
Hy Internal Theory
Overview
The Hy internals work by acting as a front-end to Python bytecode, so that Hy itself
compiles down to Python Bytecode, allowing an unmodified Python runtime to run Hy code,
without even noticing it.
The way we do this is by translating Hy into an internal Python AST datastructure, and
building that AST down into Python bytecode using modules from the Python standard
library, so that we don't have to duplicate all the work of the Python internals for every
single Python release.
Hy works in four stages. The following sections will cover each step of Hy from source to
runtime.
Steps 1 and 2: Tokenizing and Parsing
The first stage of compiling Hy is to lex the source into tokens that we can deal with. We
use a project called rply, which is a really nice (and fast) parser, written in a subset
of Python called rpython.
The lexing code is all defined in hy.lex.lexer. This code is mostly just defining the Hy
grammar, and all the actual hard parts are taken care of by rply -- we just define
"callbacks" for rply in hy.lex.parser, which takes the tokens generated, and returns the
Hy models.
You can think of the Hy models as the "AST" for Hy, it's what Macros operate on
(directly), and it's what the compiler uses when it compiles Hy down.
SEE ALSO:
Section Hy Models for more information on Hy models and what they mean.
Step 3: Hy Compilation to Python AST
This is where most of the magic in Hy happens. This is where we take Hy AST (the models),
and compile them into Python AST. A couple of funky things happen here to work past a few
problems in AST, and working in the compiler is some of the most important work we do
have.
The compiler is a bit complex, so don't feel bad if you don't grok it on the first shot,
it may take a bit of time to get right.
The main entry-point to the Compiler is HyASTCompiler.compile. This method is invoked, and
the only real "public" method on the class (that is to say, we don't really promise the
API beyond that method).
In fact, even internally, we don't recurse directly hardly ever, we almost always force
the Hy tree through compile, and will often do this with sub-elements of an expression
that we have. It's up to the Type-based dispatcher to properly dispatch sub-elements.
All methods that preform a compilation are marked with the @builds() decorator. You can
either pass the class of the Hy model that it compiles, or you can use a string for
expressions. I'll clear this up in a second.
First Stage Type-Dispatch
Let's start in the compile method. The first thing we do is check the Type of the thing
we're building. We look up to see if we have a method that can build the type() that we
have, and dispatch to the method that can handle it. If we don't have any methods that can
build that type, we raise an internal Exception.
For instance, if we have a HyString, we have an almost 1-to-1 mapping of Hy AST to Python
AST. The compile_string method takes the HyString, and returns an ast.Str() that's
populated with the correct line-numbers and content.
Macro-Expand
If we get a HyExpression, we'll attempt to see if this is a known Macro, and push to have
it expanded by invoking hy.macros.macroexpand, then push the result back into
HyASTCompiler.compile.
Second Stage Expression-Dispatch
The only special case is the HyExpression, since we need to create different AST depending
on the special form in question. For instance, when we hit an (if True True False), we
need to generate a ast.If, and properly compile the sub-nodes. This is where the @builds()
with a String as an argument comes in.
For the compile_expression (which is defined with an @builds(HyExpression)) will dispatch
based on the string of the first argument. If, for some reason, the first argument is not
a string, it will properly handle that case as well (most likely by raising an Exception).
If the String isn't known to Hy, it will default to create an ast.Call, which will try to
do a runtime call (in Python, something like foo()).
Issues Hit with Python AST
Python AST is great; it's what's enabled us to write such a powerful project on top of
Python without having to fight Python too hard. Like anything, we've had our fair share of
issues, and here's a short list of the common ones you might run into.
Python differentiates between Statements and Expressions.
This might not sound like a big deal -- in fact, to most Python programmers, this will
shortly become a "Well, yeah" moment.
In Python, doing something like:
print for x in range(10): pass, because print prints expressions, and for isn't an
expression, it's a control flow statement. Things like 1 + 1 are Expressions, as is lambda
x: 1 + x, but other language features, such as if, for, or while are statements.
Since they have no "value" to Python, this makes working in Hy hard, since doing something
like (print (if True True False)) is not just common, it's expected.
As a result, we auto-mangle things using a Result object, where we offer up any ast.stmt
that need to get run, and a single ast.expr that can be used to get the value of whatever
was just run. Hy does this by forcing assignment to things while running.
As example, the Hy:
(print (if True True False))
Will turn into:
if True:
_mangled_name_here = True
else:
_mangled_name_here = False
print _mangled_name_here
OK, that was a bit of a lie, since we actually turn that statement into:
print True if True else False
By forcing things into an ast.expr if we can, but the general idea holds.
Step 4: Python Bytecode Output and Runtime
After we have a Python AST tree that's complete, we can try and compile it to Python
bytecode by pushing it through eval. From here on out, we're no longer in control, and
Python is taking care of everything. This is why things like Python tracebacks, pdb and
django apps work.
Hy Macros
Using gensym for Safer Macros
When writing macros, one must be careful to avoid capturing external variables or using
variable names that might conflict with user code.
We will use an example macro nif (see
http://letoverlambda.com/index.cl/guest/chap3.html#sec_5 for a more complete description.)
nif is an example, something like a numeric if, where based on the expression, one of the
3 forms is called depending on if the expression is positive, zero or negative.
A first pass might be something like:
(defmacro nif [expr pos-form zero-form neg-form]
`(let [obscure-name ~expr]
(cond [(pos? obscure-name) ~pos-form]
[(zero? obscure-name) ~zero-form]
[(neg? obscure-name) ~neg-form])))
where obscure-name is an attempt to pick some variable name as not to conflict with other
code. But of course, while well-intentioned, this is no guarantee.
The method gensym is designed to generate a new, unique symbol for just such an occasion.
A much better version of nif would be:
(defmacro nif [expr pos-form zero-form neg-form]
(let [g (gensym)]
`(let [~g ~expr]
(cond [(pos? ~g) ~pos-form]
[(zero? ~g) ~zero-form]
[(neg? ~g) ~neg-form]))))
This is an easy case, since there is only one symbol. But if there is a need for several
gensym's there is a second macro with-gensyms that basically expands to a series of let
statements:
(with-gensyms [a b c]
...)
expands to:
(let [a (gensym)
b (gensym)
c (gensym)]
...)
so our re-written nif would look like:
(defmacro nif [expr pos-form zero-form neg-form]
(with-gensyms [g]
`(let [~g ~expr]
(cond [(pos? ~g) ~pos-form]
[(zero? ~g) ~zero-form]
[(neg? ~g) ~neg-form]))))
Finally, though we can make a new macro that does all this for us. defmacro/g! will take
all symbols that begin with g! and automatically call gensym with the remainder of the
symbol. So g!a would become (gensym "a").
Our final version of nif, built with defmacro/g! becomes:
(defmacro/g! nif [expr pos-form zero-form neg-form]
`(let [~g!res ~expr]
(cond [(pos? ~g!res) ~pos-form]
[(zero? ~g!res) ~zero-form]
[(neg? ~g!res) ~neg-form]))))
Checking Macro Arguments and Raising Exceptions
Hy Compiler Built-Ins
EXTRA MODULES INDEX
These modules are considered no less stable than Hy's built-in functions and macros, but
they need to be loaded with (import
Contents:
Anaphoric Macros
New in version 0.9.12.
The anaphoric macros module makes functional programming in Hy very concise and easy to
read.
An anaphoric macro is a type of programming macro that deliberately captures some form
supplied to the macro which may be referred to by an anaphor (an expression referring
to another). — Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphoric_macro)
To use these macros you need to require the hy.extra.anaphoric module like so:
(require [hy.extra.anaphoric [*]])
ap-if
Usage: (ap-if (foo) (print it))
Evaluates the first form for truthiness, and bind it to it in both the true and false
branches.
ap-each
Usage: (ap-each [1 2 3 4 5] (print it))
Evaluate the form for each element in the list for side-effects.
ap-each-while
Usage: (ap-each-while list pred body)
Evaluate the form for each element where the predicate form returns True.
=> (ap-each-while [1 2 3 4 5 6] (< it 4) (print it))
1
2
3
ap-map
Usage: (ap-map form list)
The anaphoric form of map works just like regular map except that instead of a function
object it takes a Hy form. The special name it is bound to the current object from the
list in the iteration.
=> (list (ap-map (* it 2) [1 2 3]))
[2, 4, 6]
ap-map-when
Usage: (ap-map-when predfn rep list)
Evaluate a mapping over the list using a predicate function to determin when to apply the
form.
=> (list (ap-map-when odd? (* it 2) [1 2 3 4]))
[2, 2, 6, 4]
=> (list (ap-map-when even? (* it 2) [1 2 3 4]))
[1, 4, 3, 8]
ap-filter
Usage: (ap-filter form list)
As with ap-map we take a special form instead of a function to filter the elements of the
list. The special name it is bound to the current element in the iteration.
=> (list (ap-filter (> (* it 2) 6) [1 2 3 4 5]))
[4, 5]
ap-reject
Usage: (ap-reject form list)
This function does the opposite of ap-filter, it rejects the elements passing the
predicate . The special name it is bound to the current element in the iteration.
=> (list (ap-reject (> (* it 2) 6) [1 2 3 4 5]))
[1, 2, 3]
ap-dotimes
Usage (ap-dotimes n body)
This function evaluates the body n times, with the special variable it bound from 0 to
1-n. It is useful for side-effects.
=> (setv n [])
=> (ap-dotimes 3 (.append n it))
=> n
[0, 1, 2]
ap-first
Usage (ap-first predfn list)
This function returns the first element that passes the predicate or None, with the
special variable it bound to the current element in iteration.
=>(ap-first (> it 5) (range 10))
6
ap-last
Usage (ap-last predfn list)
This function returns the last element that passes the predicate or None, with the special
variable it bound to the current element in iteration.
=>(ap-last (> it 5) (range 10))
9
ap-reduce
Usage (ap-reduce form list &optional initial-value)
This function returns the result of applying form to the first 2 elements in the body and
applying the result and the 3rd element etc. until the list is exhausted. Optionally an
initial value can be supplied so the function will be applied to initial value and the
first element instead. This exposes the element being iterated as it and the current
accumulated value as acc.
=>(ap-reduce (+ it acc) (range 10))
45
ap-pipe
Usage (ap-pipe value form1 form2 ...)
Applies several forms in series to a value from left to right. The special variable ìt in
each form is replaced by the result of the previous form.
=> (ap-pipe 3 (+ it 1) (/ 5 it))
1.25
=> (ap-pipe [4 5 6 7] (list (rest it)) (len it))
3
ap-compose
Usage (ap-compose form1 form2 ...)
Returns a function which applies several forms in series from left to right. The special
variable ìt in each form is replaced by the result of the previous form.
=> (def op (ap-compose (+ it 1) (* it 3)))
=> (op 2)
9
xi
Usage (xi body ...)
Returns a function with parameters implicitly determined by the presence in the body of xi
parameters. An xi symbol designates the ith parameter (1-based, e.g. x1, x2, x3, etc.), or
all remaining parameters for xi itself. This is not a replacement for lambda. The xi forms
cannot be nested.
This is similar to Clojure's anonymous function literals (#()).
=> ((xi identity [x1 x5 [x2 x3] xi x4]) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8)
[1, 5, [2, 3,] (6, 7, 8), 4]
=> (def add-10 (xi + 10 x1))
=> (add-10 6)
16
CONTRIBUTOR MODULES INDEX
These modules are experimental additions to Hy. Once deemed mature, they will be moved to
the hy.extra namespace or loaded by default.
Contents:
loop/recur
New in version 0.10.0.
The loop / recur macro gives programmers a simple way to use tail-call optimization (TCO)
in their Hy code.
A tail call is a subroutine call that happens inside another procedure as its final
action; it may produce a return value which is then immediately returned by the calling
procedure. If any call that a subroutine performs, such that it might eventually lead
to this same subroutine being called again down the call chain, is in tail position,
such a subroutine is said to be tail-recursive, which is a special case of recursion.
Tail calls are significant because they can be implemented without adding a new stack
frame to the call stack. Most of the frame of the current procedure is not needed any
more, and it can be replaced by the frame of the tail call. The program can then jump
to the called subroutine. Producing such code instead of a standard call sequence is
called tail call elimination, or tail call optimization. Tail call elimination allows
procedure calls in tail position to be implemented as efficiently as goto statements,
thus allowing efficient structured programming. — Wikipedia (‐
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_call)
Macros
loop
loop establishes a recursion point. With loop, recur rebinds the variables set in the
recursion point and sends code execution back to that recursion point. If recur is used in
a non-tail position, an exception is raised.
Usage: (loop bindings &rest body)
Example:
(require [hy.contrib.loop [loop]])
(defn factorial [n]
(loop [[i n] [acc 1]]
(if (zero? i)
acc
(recur (dec i) (* acc i)))))
(factorial 1000)
defmulti
defn
New in version 0.10.0.
defn lets you arity-overload a function by the given number of args and/or kwargs. This
version of defn works with regular syntax and with the arity overloaded one. Inspired by
Clojures take on defn.
=> (require [hy.contrib.multi [defn]])
=> (defn fun
... ([a] "a")
... ([a b] "a b")
... ([a b c] "a b c"))
=> (fun 1)
"a"
=> (fun 1 2)
"a b"
=> (fun 1 2 3)
"a b c"
=> (defn add [a b]
... (+ a b))
=> (add 1 2)
3
defmulti
New in version 0.12.0.
defmulti, defmethod and default-method lets you define multimethods where a dispatching
function is used to select between different implementations of the function. Inspired by
Clojure's multimethod and based on the code by Adam Bard.
=> (require [hy.contrib.multi [defmulti defmethod default-method]])
=> (defmulti area [shape]
... "calculate area of a shape"
... (:type shape))
=> (defmethod area "square" [square]
... (* (:width square)
... (:height square)))
=> (defmethod area "circle" [circle]
... (* (** (:radius circle) 2)
... 3.14))
=> (default-method area [shape]
... 0)
=> (area {:type "circle" :radius 0.5})
0.785
=> (area {:type "square" :width 2 :height 2})
4
=> (area {:type "non-euclid rhomboid"})
0
defmulti is used to define the initial multimethod with name, signature and code that
selects between different implementations. In the example, multimethod expects a single
input that is type of dictionary and contains at least key :type. The value that
corresponds to this key is returned and is used to selected between different
implementations.
defmethod defines a possible implementation for multimethod. It works otherwise in the
same way as defn, but has an extra parameters for specifying multimethod and which calls
are routed to this specific implementation. In the example, shapes with "square" as :type
are routed to first function and shapes with "circle" as :type are routed to second
function.
default-method specifies default implementation for multimethod that is called when no
other implementation matches.
Interfaces of multimethod and different implementation don't have to be exactly identical,
as long as they're compatible enough. In practice this means that multimethod should
accept the broadest range of parameters and different implementations can narrow them
down.
=> (require [hy.contrib.multi [defmulti defmethod]])
=> (defmulti fun [&rest args]
... (len args))
=> (defmethod fun 1 [a]
... a)
=> (defmethod fun 2 [a b]
... (+ a b))
=> (fun 1)
1
=> (fun 1 2)
3
Profile
New in version 0.10.0.
The profile macros make it easier to find bottlenecks.
Macros
profile/calls
profile/calls allows you to create a call graph visualization. Note: You must have
Graphviz installed for this to work.
Usage: (profile/calls (body))
Example:
(require [hy.contrib.profile [profile/calls]])
(profile/calls (print "hey there"))
profile/cpu
profile/cpu allows you to profile a bit of code.
Usage: (profile/cpu (body))
Example:
(require [hy.contrib.profile [profile/cpu]])
(profile/cpu (print "hey there"))
hey there
<pstats.Stats instance at 0x14ff320>
2 function calls in 0.000 seconds
Random listing order was used
ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function) 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 {method 'disable' of '_lsprof.Profiler' objects}
1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 {print}
Lazy sequences
New in version 0.12.0.
The sequences module contains a few macros for declaring sequences that are evaluated only
as much as the client code requires. Unlike generators, they allow accessing the same
element multiple times. They cache calculated values, and the implementation allows for
recursive definition of sequences without resulting in recursive computation.
To use these macros, you need to require them and import some other names like so:
(require [hy.contrib.sequences [defseq seq]])
(import [hy.contrib.sequences [Sequence end-sequence]])
The simplest sequence can be defined as (seq [n] n). This defines a sequence that starts
as [0 1 2 3 ...] and continues forever. In order to define a finite sequence, you need to
call end-sequence to signal the end of the sequence:
(seq [n]
"sequence of 5 integers"
(cond [(< n 5) n]
[True (end-sequence)]))
This creates the following sequence: [0 1 2 3 4]. For such a sequence, len returns the
amount of items in the sequence and negative indexing is supported. Because both of these
require evaluating the whole sequence, calling one on an infinite sequence would take
forever (or at least until available memory has been exhausted).
Sequences can be defined recursively. For example, the Fibonacci sequence could be defined
as:
(defseq fibonacci [n]
"infinite sequence of fibonacci numbers"
(cond [(= n 0) 0]
[(= n 1) 1]
[True (+ (get fibonacci (- n 1))
(get fibonacci (- n 2)))]))
This results in the sequence [0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 ...].
seq
Usage: (seq [n] (* n n)
Creates a sequence defined in terms of n.
defseq
Usage: (defseq numbers [n] n)
Creates a sequence defined in terms of n and assigns it to a given name.
end-sequence
Usage: (seq [n] (if (< n 5) n (end-sequence)))
Signals the end of a sequence when an iterator reaches the given point of the sequence.
Internally, this is done by raising IndexError, catching that in the iterator, and raising
StopIteration.
walk
New in version 0.11.0.
Functions
walk
Usage: (walk inner outer form)
walk traverses form, an arbitrary data structure. Applies inner to each element of form,
building up a data structure of the same type. Applies outer to the result.
Example:
=> (import [hy.contrib.walk [walk]])
=> (setv a '(a b c d e f))
=> (walk ord identity a)
(97 98 99 100 101 102)
=> (walk ord first a)
97
postwalk
Usage: (postwalk f form)
Performs depth-first, post-order traversal of form. Calls f on each sub-form, uses f 's
return value in place of the original.
=> (import [hy.contrib.walk [postwalk]])
=> (def trail '([1 2 3] [4 [5 6 [7]]]))
=> (defn walking [x]
(print "Walking:" x)
x )
=> (postwalk walking trail)
Walking: 1
Walking: 2
Walking: 3
Walking: (1 2 3)
Walking: 4
Walking: 5
Walking: 6
Walking: 7
Walking: (7)
Walking: (5 6 [7])
Walking: (4 [5 6 [7]])
Walking: ([1 2 3] [4 [5 6 [7]]])
([1 2 3] [4 [5 6 [7]]])
prewalk
Usage: (prewalk f form)
Performs depth-first, pre-order traversal of form. Calls f on each sub-form, uses f 's
return value in place of the original.
=> (import [hy.contrib.walk [prewalk]])
=> (def trail '([1 2 3] [4 [5 6 [7]]]))
=> (defn walking [x]
(print "Walking:" x)
x )
=> (prewalk walking trail)
Walking: ([1 2 3] [4 [5 6 [7]]])
Walking: [1 2 3]
Walking: 1
Walking: 2
Walking: 3
Walking: [4 [5 6 [7]]]
Walking: 4
Walking: [5 6 [7]]
Walking: 5
Walking: 6
Walking: [7]
Walking: 7
([1 2 3] [4 [5 6 [7]]])
HACKING ON HY
Join our Hyve!
Please come hack on Hy!
Please come hang out with us on #hy on irc.freenode.net!
Please talk about it on Twitter with the #hy hashtag!
Please blog about it!
Please don't spraypaint it on your neighbor's fence (without asking nicely)!
Hack!
Do this:
1. Create a virtual environment:
$ virtualenv venv
and activate it:
$ . venv/bin/activate
or use virtualenvwrapper to create and manage your virtual environment:
$ mkvirtualenv hy
$ workon hy
2. Get the source code:
$ git clone https://github.com/hylang/hy.git
or use your fork:
$ git clone git@github.com:<YOUR_USERNAME>/hy.git
3. Install for hacking:
$ cd hy/
$ pip install -e .
4. Install other develop-y requirements:
$ pip install -r requirements-dev.txt
5. Do awesome things; make someone shriek in delight/disgust at what you have wrought.
Test!
Tests are located in tests/. We use nose.
To run the tests:
$ nosetests
Write tests---tests are good!
Also, it is good to run the tests for all the platforms supported and for PEP 8 compliant
code. You can do so by running tox:
$ tox
Document!
Documentation is located in docs/. We use Sphinx.
To build the docs in HTML:
$ cd docs
$ make html
Write docs---docs are good! Even this doc!
Contributing
Contributor Guidelines
Contributions are welcome & greatly appreciated, every little bit helps in making Hy more
awesome.
Pull requests are great! We love them; here is a quick guide:
• Fork the repo and create a topic branch for a feature/fix. Avoid making changes directly
on the master branch. If you would like to contribute but don't know how to begin, the
good-first-bug label of the issue tracker is the place to go. (If you're new to Git:
Start Here)
• Before contributing make sure you check the docs. There are two versions of docs
available:
• latest, for use with the bleeding-edge GitHub version.
• stable, for use with the PyPI version.
• All incoming features should be accompanied with tests.
• If you are contributing a major change to the Hy language (e.g. changing the behavior of
or removing functions or macros), or you're unsure of the proposed change, please open
an issue in the issue tracker before submitting the PR. This will allow others to give
feedback on your idea, and it will avoid constant changes or wasted work. For other PRs
(such as documentation fixes or code cleanup), you can directly open the PR without
first opening a corresponding issue.
• Before you submit a PR, please run the tests and check your code against the style
guide. You can do both of these things at once:
$ make d
• Make commits into logical units, so that it is easier to track & navigate later. Before
submitting a PR, try squashing the commits into changesets that are easy to come back to
later. Also, make sure you don't leave spurious whitespace in the changesets; this
avoids creation of whitespace fix commits later.
• As far as commit messages go, try to adhere to the following:
• Try sticking to the 50 character limit for the first line of Git commit messages.
• For more detail/explanations, follow this up with a blank line and continue describing
the commit in detail.
• Finally, add yourself to the AUTHORS file (as a separate commit): you deserve it :)
• All incoming changes need to be acked by 2 different members of Hylang's core team.
Additional review is clearly welcome, but we need a minimum of 2 signoffs for any
change.
• If a core member is sending in a PR, please find 2 core members that doesn't include the
PR submitter. The idea here is that one can work with the PR author, and a second acks
the entire change set.
• For documentation & other trivial changes, we're good to merge after one ACK. We've got
low coverage, so it'd be great to keep that barrier low.
Contributor Code of Conduct
As contributors and maintainers of this project, we pledge to respect all people who
contribute through reporting issues, posting feature requests, updating documentation,
submitting pull requests or patches, and other activities.
We are committed to making participation in this project a harassment-free experience for
everyone, regardless of level of experience, gender, gender identity and expression,
sexual orientation, disability, personal appearance, body size, race, ethnicity, age, or
religion.
Examples of unacceptable behavior by participants include the use of sexual language or
imagery, derogatory comments or personal attacks, trolling, public or private harassment,
insults, or other unprofessional conduct.
Project maintainers have the right and responsibility to remove, edit, or reject comments,
commits, code, wiki edits, issues, and other contributions that are not aligned to this
Code of Conduct. Project maintainers who do not follow the Code of Conduct may be removed
from the project team.
This code of conduct applies both within project spaces and in public spaces when an
individual is representing the project or its community.
Instances of abusive, harassing, or otherwise unacceptable behavior may be reported by
opening an issue or contacting one or more of the project maintainers.
This Code of Conduct is adapted from the Contributor Covenant, version 1.1.0, available at
http://contributor-covenant.org/version/1/1/0/.
Core Team
The core development team of Hy consists of following developers:
• Julien Danjou
• Morten Linderud
• J Kenneth King
• Gergely Nagy
• Tuukka Turto
• Karen Rustad
• Abhishek L
• Christopher Allan Webber
• Konrad Hinsen
• Will Kahn-Greene
• Paul Tagliamonte
• Nicolas Dandrimont
• Berker Peksag
• Clinton N. Dreisbach
• han semaj
• Zack M. Davis
• Kodi Arfer
AUTHOR
Paul Tagliamonte
COPYRIGHT
2013-2017, Paul Tagliamonte
March 11, 2017 HY(1)