Provided by: python3-hy_0.18.0-1_all 
NAME
hy - hy 0.18.0 [image: Hy] [image]
PyPI https://pypi.python.org/pypi/hy
Source https://github.com/hylang/hy
List hylang-discuss
IRC irc://chat.freenode.net/hy
Stack Overflow
The [hy] tag
Hy is a Lisp dialect that's embedded in Python. Since Hy transforms its Lisp code into
Python abstract syntax tree (AST) objects, you have the whole beautiful world of Python at
your fingertips, in Lisp form.
To install the latest stable release of Hy, just use the command pip3 install --user hy.
Then you can start an interactive read-eval-print loop (REPL) with the command hy, or run
a Hy program with hy myprogram.hy.
WHY HY?
Hy is a multi-paradigm general-purpose programming language in the Lisp family. It's
implemented as a kind of alternative syntax for Python. Compared to Python, Hy offers a
variety of extra features, generalizations, and syntactic simplifications, as would be
expected of a Lisp. Compared to other Lisps, Hy provides direct access to Python's
built-ins and third-party Python libraries, while allowing you to freely mix imperative,
functional, and object-oriented styles of programming.
Hy versus Python
The first thing a Python programmer will notice about Hy is that it has Lisp's traditional
parenthesis-heavy prefix syntax in place of Python's C-like infix syntax. For example,
print("The answer is", 2 + object.method(arg)) could be written (print "The answer is" (+
2 (.method object arg))) in Hy. Consequently, Hy is free-form: structure is indicated by
parentheses rather than whitespace, making it convenient for command-line use.
As in other Lisps, the value of a simplistic syntax is that it facilitates Lisp's
signature feature: metaprogramming through macros, which are functions that manipulate
code objects at compile time to produce new code objects, which are then executed as if
they had been part of the original code. In fact, Hy allows arbitrary computation at
compile-time. For example, here's a simple macro that implements a C-style do-while loop,
which executes its body for as long as the condition is true, but at least once.
(defmacro do-while [condition &rest body]
`(do
~body
(while ~condition
~body)))
(setv x 0)
(do-while x
(print "This line is executed once."))
Hy also removes Python's restrictions on mixing expressions and statements, allowing for
more direct and functional code. For example, Python doesn't allow with blocks, which
close a resource once you're done using it, to return values. They can only execute a set
of statements:
with open("foo") as o:
f1 = o.read()
with open("bar") as o:
f2 = o.read()
print(len(f1) + len(f2))
In Hy, with returns the value of its last body form, so you can use it like an ordinary
function call:
(print (+
(len (with [o (open "foo")] (.read o))
(len (with [o (open "bar")] (.read o))))))
To be even more concise, you can put a with form in a generator expression:
(print (sum (gfor
filename ["foo" "bar"]
(len (with [o (open filename)] (.read o))))))
Finally, Hy offers several generalizations to Python's binary operators. Operators can be
given more than two arguments (e.g., (+ 1 2 3)), including augmented assignment operators
(e.g., (+= x 1 2 3)). They are also provided as ordinary first-class functions of the same
name, allowing them to be passed to higher-order functions: (sum xs) could be written
(reduce + xs).
The Hy compiler works by reading Hy source code into Hy model objects and compiling the Hy
model objects into Python abstract syntax tree (ast) objects. Python AST objects can then
be compiled and run by Python itself, byte-compiled for faster execution later, or
rendered into Python source code. You can even mix Python and Hy code in the same
project, or even the same file, which can be a good way to get your feet wet in Hy.
Hy versus other Lisps
At run-time, Hy is essentially Python code. Thus, while Hy's design owes a lot to Clojure,
it is more tightly coupled to Python than Clojure is to Java; a better analogy is
CoffeeScript's relationship to JavaScript. Python's built-in functions and data structures
are directly available:
(print (int "deadbeef" :base 16)) ; 3735928559
(print (len [1 10 100])) ; 3
The same goes for third-party Python libraries from PyPI and elsewhere. Here's a tiny
CherryPy web application in Hy:
(import cherrypy)
(defclass HelloWorld []
(#@ cherrypy.expose (defn index [self]
"Hello World!")))
(cherrypy.quickstart (HelloWorld))
You can even run Hy on PyPy for a particularly speedy Lisp.
Like all Lisps, Hy is homoiconic. Its syntax is represented not with cons cells or with
Python's basic data structures, but with simple subclasses of Python's basic data
structures called models. Using models in place of plain lists, sets, and so on has two
purposes: models can keep track of their line and column numbers for the benefit of error
messages, and models can represent syntactic features that the corresponding primitive
type can't, such as the order in which elements appear in a set literal. However, models
can be concatenated and indexed just like plain lists, and you can return ordinary Python
types from a macro or give them to eval and Hy will automatically promote them to models.
Hy takes much of its semantics from Python. For example, Hy is a Lisp-1 because Python
functions use the same namespace as objects that aren't functions. In general, any Python
code should be possible to literally translate to Hy. At the same time, Hy goes to some
lengths to allow you to do typical Lisp things that aren't straightforward in Python. For
example, Hy provides the aforementioned mixing of statements and expressions, name
mangling that transparently converts symbols with names like valid? to Python-legal
identifiers, and a let macro to provide block-level scoping in place of Python's usual
function-level scoping.
Overall, Hy, like Common Lisp, is intended to be an unopinionated big-tent language that
lets you do what you want. If you're interested in a more small-and-beautiful approach to
Lisp, in the style of Scheme, check out Hissp, another Lisp embedded in Python that was
created by a Hy developer.
TUTORIAL
[image: Karen Rustard's Cuddles] [image]
This chapter provides a quick introduction to Hy. It assumes a basic background in
programming, but no specific prior knowledge of Python or Lisp.
Lisp-stick on a Python
Let's start with the classic:
(print "Hy, world!")
This program calls the print() function, which, like all of Python's built-in functions,
is available in Hy.
All of Python's binary and unary operators are available, too, although == is spelled = in
deference to Lisp tradition. Here's how we'd use the addition operator +:
(+ 1 3)
This code returns 4. It's equivalent to 1 + 3 in Python and many other languages.
Languages in the Lisp family, including Hy, use a prefix syntax: +, just like print or
sqrt, appears before all of its arguments. The call is delimited by parentheses, but the
opening parenthesis appears before the operator being called instead of after it, so
instead of sqrt(2), we write (sqrt 2). Multiple arguments, such as the two integers in (+
1 3), are separated by whitespace. Many operators, including +, allow more than two
arguments: (+ 1 2 3) is equivalent to 1 + 2 + 3.
Here's a more complex example:
(- (* (+ 1 3 88) 2) 8)
This code returns 176. Why? We can see the infix equivalent with the command echo "(- (*
(+ 1 3 88) 2) 8)" | hy2py, which returns the Python code corresponding to the given Hy
code, or by passing the --spy option to Hy when starting the REPL, which shows the Python
equivalent of each input line before the result. The infix equivalent in this case is:
((1 + 3 + 88) * 2) - 8
To evaluate this infix expression, you'd of course evaluate the innermost parenthesized
expression first and work your way outwards. The same goes for Lisp. Here's what we'd get
by evaluating the above Hy code one step at a time:
(- (* (+ 1 3 88) 2) 8)
(- (* 92 2) 8)
(- 184 8)
176
The basic unit of Lisp syntax, which is similar to a C or Python expression, is the form.
92, *, and (* 92 2) are all forms. A Lisp program consists of a sequence of forms nested
within forms. Forms are typically separated from each other by whitespace, but some forms,
such as string literals ("Hy, world!"), can contain whitespace themselves. An expression
is a form enclosed in parentheses; its first child form, called the head, determines what
the expression does, and should generally be a function, macro, or special operator.
Functions are the most ordinary sort of head, whereas macros (described in more detail
below) are functions executed at compile-time instead and return code to be executed at
run-time. Special operators are one of a fixed set of names that are hard-coded into the
compiler, and used to implement everything else.
Comments start with a ; character and continue till the end of the line. A comment is
functionally equivalent to whitespace.
(print (** 2 64)) ; Max 64-bit unsigned integer value
Although # isn't a comment character in Hy, a Hy program can begin with a shebang line,
which Hy itself will ignore:
#!/usr/bin/env hy
(print "Make me executable, and run me!")
Literals
Hy has literal syntax for all of the same data types that Python does. Here's an example
of Hy code for each type and the Python equivalent.
┌───────────┬──────────────┬──────────┐
│Hy │ Python │ Type │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│1 │ 1 │ int │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│1.2 │ 1.2 │ float │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│4j │ 4j │ complex │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│True │ True │ bool │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│None │ None │ NoneType │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│"hy" │ 'hy' │ str │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│b"hy" │ b'hy' │ bytes │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│(, 1 2 3) │ (1, 2, 3) │ tuple │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│[1 2 3] │ [1, 2, 3] │ list │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│#{1 2 3} │ {1, 2, 3} │ set │
├───────────┼──────────────┼──────────┤
│{1 2 3 4} │ {1: 2, 3: 4} │ dict │
└───────────┴──────────────┴──────────┘
In addition, Hy has a Clojure-style literal syntax for fractions.Fraction: 1/3 is
equivalent to fractions.Fraction(1, 3).
The Hy REPL prints output in Python syntax by default:
=> [1 2 3]
[1, 2, 3]
But if you start Hy like this (a shell alias might be helpful):
$ hy --repl-output-fn=hy.contrib.hy-repr.hy-repr
the interactive mode will use hy-repr-fn instead of Python's native repr function to print
out values, so you'll see values in Hy syntax:
=> [1 2 3]
[1 2 3]
Basic operations
Set variables with setv:
(setv zone-plane 8)
Access the elements of a list, dictionary, or other data structure with get:
(setv fruit ["apple" "banana" "cantaloupe"])
(print (get fruit 0)) ; => apple
(setv (get fruit 1) "durian")
(print (get fruit 1)) ; => durian
Access a range of elements in an ordered structure with cut:
(print (cut "abcdef" 1 4)) ; => bcd
Conditional logic can be built with if:
(if (= 1 1)
(print "Math works. The universe is safe.")
(print "Math has failed. The universe is doomed."))
As in this example, if is called like (if CONDITION THEN ELSE). It executes and returns
the form THEN if CONDITION is true (according to bool) and ELSE otherwise. If ELSE is
omitted, None is used in its place.
What if you want to use more than form in place of the THEN or ELSE clauses, or in place
of CONDITION, for that matter? Use the special operator do (known more traditionally in
Lisp as progn), which combines several forms into one, returning the last:
(if (do (print "Let's check.") (= 1 1))
(do
(print "Math works.")
(print "The universe is safe."))
(do
(print "Math has failed.")
(print "The universe is doomed.")))
For branching on more than one case, try cond:
(setv somevar 33)
(cond
[(> somevar 50)
(print "That variable is too big!")]
[(< somevar 10)
(print "That variable is too small!")]
[True
(print "That variable is jussssst right!")])
The macro (when CONDITION THEN-1 THEN-2 …) is shorthand for (if CONDITION (do THEN-1
THEN-2 …)). unless works the same as when, but inverts the condition with not.
Hy's basic loops are while and for:
(setv x 3)
(while (> x 0)
(print x)
(setv x (- x 1))) ; => 3 2 1
(for [x [1 2 3]]
(print x)) ; => 1 2 3
A more functional way to iterate is provided by the comprehension forms such as lfor.
Whereas for always returns None, lfor returns a list with one element per iteration.
(print (lfor x [1 2 3] (* x 2))) ; => [2, 4, 6]
Functions, classes, and modules
Define named functions with defn:
(defn fib [n]
(if (< n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))))
(print (fib 8)) ; => 21
Define anonymous functions with fn:
(print (list (filter (fn [x] (% x 2)) (range 10))))
; => [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
Special symbols in the parameter list of defn or fn allow you to indicate optional
arguments, provide default values, and collect unlisted arguments:
(defn test [a b &optional c [d "x"] &rest e]
[a b c d e])
(print (test 1 2)) ; => [1, 2, None, 'x', ()]
(print (test 1 2 3 4 5 6 7)) ; => [1, 2, 3, 4, (5, 6, 7)]
Set a function parameter by name with a :keyword:
(test 1 2 :d "y") ; => [1, 2, None, 'y', ()]
Define classes with defclass:
(defclass FooBar []
(defn __init__ [self x]
(setv self.x x))
(defn get-x [self]
self.x))
Here we create a new instance fb of FooBar and access its attributes by various means:
(setv fb (FooBar 15))
(print fb.x) ; => 15
(print (. fb x)) ; => 15
(print (.get-x fb)) ; => 15
(print (fb.get-x)) ; => 15
Note that syntax like fb.x and fb.get-x only works when the object being invoked (fb, in
this case) is a simple variable name. To get an attribute or call a method of an arbitrary
form FORM, you must use the syntax (. FORM x) or (.get-x FORM).
Access an external module, whether written in Python or Hy, with import:
(import math)
(print (math.sqrt 2)) ; => 1.4142135623730951
Python can import a Hy module like any other module so long as Hy itself has been imported
first, which, of course, must have already happened if you're running a Hy program.
Macros
Macros are the basic metaprogramming tool of Lisp. A macro is a function that is called at
compile time (i.e., when a Hy program is being translated to Python ast objects) and
returns code, which becomes part of the final program. Here's a simple example:
(print "Executing")
(defmacro m []
(print "Now for a slow computation")
(setv x (% (** 10 10 7) 3))
(print "Done computing")
x)
(print "Value:" (m))
(print "Done executing")
If you run this program twice in a row, you'll see this:
$ hy example.hy
Now for a slow computation
Done computing
Executing
Value: 1
Done executing
$ hy example.hy
Executing
Value: 1
Done executing
The slow computation is performed while compiling the program on its first invocation.
Only after the whole program is compiled does normal execution begin from the top,
printing "Executing". When the program is called a second time, it is run from the
previously compiled bytecode, which is equivalent to simply:
(print "Executing")
(print "Value:" 1)
(print "Done executing")
Our macro m has an especially simple return value, an integer, which at compile-time is
converted to an integer literal. In general, macros can return arbitrary Hy forms to be
executed as code. There are several special operators and macros that make it easy to
construct forms programmatically, such as quote ('), quasiquote (`), unquote (~), and
defmacro!. The previous chapter has a simple example of using ` and ~ to define a new
control construct do-while.
Sometimes it's nice to be able to call a one-parameter macro without parentheses. Tag
macros allow this. The name of a tag macro is often just one character long, but since Hy
allows most Unicode characters in the name of a macro (or ordinary variable), you won't
out of characters soon.
=> (deftag ↻ [code]
... (setv op (last code) params (list (butlast code)))
... `(~op ~@params))
=> #↻(1 2 3 +)
6
What if you want to use a macro that's defined in a different module? import won't help,
because it merely translates to a Python import statement that's executed at run-time, and
macros are expanded at compile-time, that is, during the translation from Hy to Python.
Instead, use require, which imports the module and makes macros available at compile-time.
require uses the same syntax as import.
=> (require tutorial.macros)
=> (tutorial.macros.rev (1 2 3 +))
6
Next steps
You now know enough to be dangerous with Hy. You may now smile villainously and sneak off
to your Hydeaway to do unspeakable things.
Refer to Python's documention for the details of Python semantics, and the rest of this
manual for Hy-specific features. Like Hy itself, the manual is incomplete, but
contributions are always welcome.
HY STYLE GUIDE
The Hy style guide intends to be a set of ground rules for the Hyve (yes, the Hy community
prides itself in appending Hy to everything) to write idiomatic Hy code. Hy derives a lot
from Clojure & Common Lisp, while always maintaining Python interoperability.
Layout & Indentation
The #1 complaint about Lisp?
It's too weird looking with all those parentheses! How do you even read that?
And, they're right! Lisp was originally much too hard to read. Then they figured out
layout and indentation. And it was glorious.
The Three Laws
Here's the secret: Real Lispers don't count the brackets. They fade into the background.
When reading Lisp, disregard the trailing closing brackets---those are for the computer,
not the human. As in Python, read the code structure by indentation.
Lisp code is made of trees---Abstract Syntax Trees---not strings. S-expressions are very
direct textual representation of AST. That's the level of homoiconicity---the level Lisp
macros operate on. It's not like the C-preprocessor or Python's interpolated eval-string
tricks that see code as just letters. That's not how to think of Lisp code; think tree
structure, not delimiters.
1. Closing brackets must NEVER be left alone, sad and lonesome on their own line.
;; PREFERRED
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1))
(fib (- n 2))))) ; Lots of Irritating Superfluous Parentheses
; L.I.S.P. ;))
;; How the experienced Lisper sees it. Indented trees. Like Python.
(defn fib [n
(if (<= n 2
n
(+ (fib (- n 1
(fib (- n 2
;; BAD
;; We're trying to ignore them and you want to give them their own line?
;; Hysterically ridiculous.
(defn fib [
n
] ; My eyes!
(if (<= n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))
)
) ; GAH, BURN IT WITH FIRE!
2. New lines must ALWAYS be indented past their parent opening bracket.
;; PREFERRED
(foo (, arg1
arg2))
;; BAD. And evil.
;; Same bracket structure as above, but not enough indent.
(foo (, arg1
arg2))
;; PREFERRED. Same indent as above, but now it matches the brackets.
(fn [arg]
arg)
;; Remember, when reading Lisp, you ignore the trailing brackets.
;; Look at what happens if we remove them.
;; Can you tell where they should go by the indentation?
(foo (, arg1
arg2
(foo (, arg1
arg2
(fn [arg
arg
;; See how the structure of those last two became indistinguishable?
;; Reconstruction of the bad example by indent.
;; Not what we started with, is it?
(foo (, arg1)
arg2)
;; Beware of brackets with reader syntax.
;; You still have to indent past them.
;; BAD
`#{(foo)
~@[(bar)
1 2]}
;; Above, no trail.
`#{(foo
~@[(bar
1 2
;; Reconstruction. Is. Wrong.
`#{(foo)}
~@[(bar)]
1 2
;; PREFERRED
`#{(foo)
~@[(bar)
1
2]}
;; OK
;; A string is an atom, not a HySequence.
(foo "abc
xyz")
;; Still readable without trailing brackets.
(foo "abc
xyz" ; Double-quote isn't a closing bracket. Don't ignore it.
3. New lines must NEVER be indented past the previous element's opening bracket.
;; BAD
((get-fn q)
x
y)
;; The above with trailing brackets removed. See the problem?
((get-fn q
x
y
;; By indentation, this is where the brackets should go.
((get-fn q
x
y))
;; OK
((get-fn q) x
y)
;; The above without trailing brackets. Still OK (for humans).
((get-fn q) x ; The ) on this line isn't trailing!
y
;; PREFERRED, since the ) should end the line.
((get-fn q)
x
y)
Limits
Follow PEP 8 rules for line limits, viz.
• 72 columns max for text (docstrings and comments).
• 79 columns max for other code, OR
• 99 for other code if primarily maintained by a team that can agree to 99.
Whitespace
AVOID trailing spaces. They suck!
AVOID tabs in code. Indent with spaces only.
PREFER the \t escape sequence to literal tab characters in one-line string literals.
• Literal tabs are OK inside multiline strings if you also add a warning comment.
• But \t is still PREFERRED in multiline strings.
• The comment should PREFERABLY appear just before the string.
• But a blanket warning at the top of a function, class, or file is OK.
Alignment
Line up arguments to function calls when splitting over multiple lines.
• The first argument PREFERABLY stays on the first line with the function name,
• but may instead start on the next line indented one space past its parent bracket.
;; PREFERRED. All args aligned with first arg.
(foofunction arg1
(barfunction bararg1
bararg2
bararg3) ; Aligned with bararg1.
arg3)
;; BAD
(foofunction arg1
(barfunction bararg1
bararg2 ; Wrong. Looks like a macro body.
bararg3) ; Why?!
arg3)
;; PREFERRED. Args can all go on one line if it fits.
(foofunction arg1
(barfunction bararg1 bararg2 bararg3)
arg3)
;; OK. Args not on first line, but still aligned.
(foofunction
arg1 ; Indented one column past parent (
(barfunction
bararg1 ; Indent again.
bararg2 ; Aligned with bararg1.
bararg3)
arg3) ; Aligned with arg1.
Hold it Open
If you need to separate a bracket trail use a #_ / comment to hold it open. This avoids
violating law #1.
;; PREFERRED
[(foo)
(bar)
(baz)]
;; OK, especially if the list is long. (Not that three is long.)
;; This is better for version control line diffs.
[ ; Opening brackets can't be "trailing closing brackets" btw.
(foo)
(bar)
(baz)
#_ /] ; Nothing to see here. Move along.
;; Examples of commenting out items at the end of a list follow.
;; As with typing things in the REPL, these cases are less important
;; if you're the only one that sees them. But even so, maintaining
;; good style can help prevent errors.
;; BAD and a syntax error. Lost a bracket.
[(foo)
;; (bar)
;; (baz)]
;; BAD. Broke law #1.
[(foo)
;; (bar)
;; (baz)
]
;; PREFERRED
;; The discard syntax respects code structure,
;; so it's less likely to cause errors.
[(foo)
#_(bar)
#_(baz)]
;; OK. Adding a final discarded element makes line comments safer.
[(foo)
;; (bar)
;; (baz)
#_ /]
Snuggle
Brackets like to snuggle, don't leave them out in the cold!
;; PREFERRED
[1 2 3]
(foo (bar 2))
;; BAD
[ 1 2 3 ]
( foo ( bar 2 ) )
;; BAD. And ugly.
[ 1 2 3]
(foo( bar 2) )
Grouping
Use whitespace to show implicit groups, but be consistent within a form.
;; Older Lisps would typically wrap such groups in even more parentheses.
;; (The Common Lisp LOOP macro was a notable exception.)
;; But Hy takes after Clojure, which has a lighter touch.
;; BAD. Can't tell key from value without counting
{1 9 2 8 3 7 4 6 5 5}
;; PREFERRED. This can fit on one line. Clojure would have used commas
;; here, but those aren't whitespace in Hy. Use extra spaces instead.
{1 9 2 8 3 7 4 6 5 5}
;; OK. And preferred if it couldn't fit on one line.
{1 9
2 8
3 7
4 6
5 5} ; Newlines show key-value pairs in dict.
;; BAD
;; This grouping makes no sense.
#{1 2
3 4} ; It's a set, so why are there pairs?
;; BAD
;; This grouping also makes no sense. But, it could be OK in a macro or
;; something if this grouping was somehow meaningful there.
[1
1 2
1 2 3] ; wHy do you like random patterns? [sic pun, sorry]
;; Be consistent. Separate all groups the same way in a form.
;; BAD
{1 9 2 8
3 7 4 6 5 5} ; Pick one or the other!
;; BAD
{1 9 2 8 3 7 4 6 5 5} ; You forgot something.
;; Groups of one must also be consistent.
;; PREFERRED
(foo 1 2 3) ; No need for extra spaces here.
;; OK, but you could have fit this on one line.
(foo 1
2
3)
;; OK, but you still could have fit this on one line.
[1
2]
;; BAD
(foo 1 2 ; This isn't a pair?
3) ; Lines or spaces--pick one or the other!
;; PREFERRRED
(foofunction (make-arg)
(get-arg)
#tag(do-stuff) ; Tags belong with what they tag.
#* args ; #* goes with what it unpacks.
:foo spam
:bar eggs ; Keyword args are also pairs. Group them.
#** kwargs)
;; PREFERRED. Spaces divide groups on one line.
(quux :foo spam :bar eggs #* with-spam)
{:foo spam :bar eggs}
;; OK. The colon is still enough to indicate groups.
(quux :foo spam :bar eggs #* with-spam)
{:foo spam :bar eggs}
;; OK.
("foo" spam "bar" eggs}
;; BAD. Can't tell key from value.
(quux :foo :spam :bar :eggs :baz :bacon)
{:foo :spam :bar :eggs :baz :bacon}
{"foo" "spam" "bar" "eggs" "baz" "bacon"}
;; PREFERRED
(quux :foo :spam :bar :eggs :baz :bacon)
{:foo :spam :bar :eggs :baz :bacon}
{"foo" "spam" "bar" "eggs" "baz" "bacon"}
;; OK. Yep, those are pairs too.
(setv x 1
y 2)
;; PREFERRED. This fits on one line.
(setv x 1 y 2)
;; BAD. Doesn't separate groups.
(print (if (< n 0.0)
"negative"
(= n 0.0)
"zero"
(> n 0.0)
"positive"
"not a number"))
;; BAD. And evil. Broke law #3. Shows groups but args aren't aligned.
(print (if (< n 0.0)
"negative"
(= n 0.0)
"zero"
(> n 0.0)
"positive"
"not a number"))
;; BAD. Shows groups but args aren't aligned.
;; If the then-parts weren't atoms, this would break law #3.
(print (if (< n 0.0)
"negative"
(= n 0.0)
"zero"
(> n 0.0)
"positive"
"not a number"))
;; OK. Redundant (do) forms allow extra indent to show groups
;; without violating law #3.
(print (if (< n 0.0)
(do
"negative")
(= n 0.0)
(do
"zero")
(> n 0.0)
(do
"positive")
"not a number"))
Separate toplevel forms (including toplevel comments not about a particular form) with a
single blank line, rather than two as in Python.
• This can be omitted for tightly associated forms.
Methods within a defclass need not be separated by blank line.
Special Arguments
Macros and special forms are normally indented one space past the parent bracket, but can
also have "special" arguments that are indented like function arguments.
• Macros with an &rest body argument contain an implicit do.
• The body is never special, but the arguments before it are.
;; PREFERRED
(assoc foo ; foo is special
"x" 1 ; remaining args are not special. Indent 2 spaces.
"y" 2)
;; PREFERRED
;; The do form has no special args. Indent like a function call.
(do (foo)
(bar)
(baz))
;; OK
;; No special args to distinguish. This is also valid function indent.
(do
(foo)
(bar)
(baz))
;; PREFERRED
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1))
(fib (- n 2)))))
;; OK
(defn fib
[n] ; name and argslist are special. Indent like function args.
;; The defn body is not special. Indent 1 space past parent bracket.
(if (<= n 2)
n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) ; Emacs-style else indent.
(fib (- n 2)))))
Removing Whitespace
Removing whitespace can also make groups clearer.
;; lookups
;; OK
(. foo ["bar"])
;; PREFERRED
(. foo["bar"])
;; BAD. Doesn't show groups clearly.
(import foo foo [spam :as sp eggs :as eg] bar bar [bacon])
;; OK. Extra spaces show groups.
(import foo foo [spam :as sp eggs :as eg] bar bar [bacon])
;; PREFERRED. Removing spaces is even clearer.
(import foo foo[spam :as sp eggs :as eg] bar bar[bacon])
;; OK. Newlines show groups.
(import foo
foo [spam :as sp
eggs :as eg]
bar
bar [bacon])
;; PREFERRED, It's more consistent with the preferred one-line version.
(import foo
foo[spam :as sp
eggs :as eg]
bar
bar[bacon])
;; Avoid whitespace after tags.
;; Note which shows groups better.
;; BAD
(foofunction #tag "foo" #tag (foo) #* (get-args))
;; OK
(foofunction #tag "foo" #tag (foo) #* (get-args))
;; PREFERRED
(foofunction #tag"foo" #tag(foo) #*(get-args))
;; PREFERRED
;; Can't group these by removing whitespace. Use extra spaces instead.
(foofunction #x foo #x bar #* args)
;; OK
;; Same idea, but this could have fit on one line.
(foofunction #x foo
#x bar
#* args)
;; OK, but you don't need to separate function name from first arg.
(foofunction #x foo #x bar #* args)
;; OK. But same idea.
;; No need to separate the first group from the function name.
(foofunction
#x foo
#x bar
#* args)
;; PREFERRED. It's still clear what this is tagging.
;; And you don't have to re-indent.
#_
(def foo []
stuff)
;; OK, but more work.
#_(def foo []
stuff)
;; BAD, you messed up the indent and broke law #2.
#_(def foo []
stuff)
;; BAD, keep the tag grouped with its argument.
#_
(def foo []
stuff)
Close Bracket, Close Line
A single closing bracket SHOULD end the line, unless it's in the middle of an implicit
group.
• If the forms are small and simple you can maybe leave them on one line.
A train of closing brackets MUST end the line.
;; One-liners are overrated.
;; Maybe OK if you're just typing into the REPL.
;; But even then, maintaining good style can help prevent errors.
;; BAD. One-liner is too hard to read.
(defn fib [n] (if (<= n 2) n (+ (fib (- n 1)) (fib (- n 2)))))
;; BAD. Getting better, but the first line is still too complex.
(defn fib [n] (if (<= n 2) n (+ (fib (- n 1))
(fib (- n 2)))))
;; OK. Barely.
(defn fib [n]
(if (<= n 2) n (+ (fib (- n 1)) ; This line is pushing it.
(fib (- n 2)))))
;; OK
(defn fib [n] ; Saw a "]", newline.
(if (<= n 2) ; OK to break here, since there's only one pair.
n
(+ (fib (- n 1)) ; Whitespace separation (Emacs else-indent).
(fib (- n 2)))))
;; OK
(defn fib [n] ; Saw a "]", end line. (Margin comments don't count.)
(if (<= n 2) n ; Saw a ")", but it's in a pair starting in this line.
(+ (fib (- n 1)) ; Saw a "))" MUST end line.
(fib (- n 2)))))
;; OK. Pairs.
(print (if (< n 0.0) "negative" ; Single ) inside group. No break.
(= n 0.0) "zero"
(> n 0.0) "positive"
:else "not a number")) ; :else is not magic; True works too.
;; OK. Avoided line breaks at single ) to show pairs.
(print (if (< n 0.0) "negative"
(= n 0.0) "zero"
(> n 0.0) (do (do-foo) ; Single ) inside group. No break.
(do-bar)
"positive")
"not a number")) ; Implicit else is PREFERRED.
;; BAD
(print (if (< n 0.0) "negative"
(= n 0.0) "zero"
(and (even? n)
(> n 0.0)) "even-positive" ; Bad. "))" must break.
(> n 0.0) "positive"
"not a number"))
;; BAD
(print (if (< n 0.0) "negative"
(= n 0.0) "zero"
(and (even? n)
(> n 0.0)) (do (do-foo) ; Y U no break?
(do-bar)
"even-positive")
(> n 0.0) "positive"
"not a number"))
;; OK. Blank line separates multiline groups.
(print (if (< n 0.0) "negative"
(= n 0.0) "zero"
(and (even? n)
(> n 0.0))
(do (do-foo)
(do-bar)
"even-positive")
(> n 0.0) "positive"
"not a number"))
;; BAD. Groups are not separated consistently.
(print (if (< n 0.0) "negative"
(= n 0.0) "zero"
(> n 0.0)
(do (do-foo)
"positive")
"not a number"))
;; OK. Single )'s and forms are simple enough.
(with [f (open "names.txt")]
(-> (.read f) .strip (.replace "\"" "") (.split ",") sorted)))
;; PREFERRED. Even so, this version is much clearer.
(with [f (open "names.txt")]
(-> (.read f)
.strip
(.replace "\"" "")
(.split ",")
sorted)))
Comments
Prefer docstrings to comments where applicable---in fn, defclass, at the top of the
module, and in any other macros derived from these that can take a docstring (e.g.
defmacro/g!, deftag, defn).
Docstrings contents follow the same conventions as Python.
The (comment) macro is still subject to the three laws. If you're tempted to violate
them, consider discarding a string instead with #_.
Semicolon comments always have one space between the semicolon and the start of the
comment. Also, try to not comment the obvious.
Comments with more than a single word should start with a capital letter and use
punctuation.
Separate sentences with a single space.
;; This commentary is not about a particular form.
;; These can span multiple lines. Limit them to column 72, per PEP 8.
;; Separate them from the next form or form comment with a blank line.
;; PREFERRED.
(setv ind (dec x)) ; Indexing starts from 0,
; margin comment continues on new line.
;; OK
;; Style-compliant but just states the obvious.
(setv ind (dec x)) ; Sets index to x-1.
;; BAD
(setv ind (dec x));typing words for fun
;; Comment about the whole foofunction call.
;; These can also span mulitple lines.
(foofunction ;; Form comment about (get-arg1). Not a margin comment!
(get-arg1)
;; Form comment about arg2. The indent matches.
arg2)
Indent form comments at the same level as the form they're commenting about; they must
always start with exactly two semicolons ;;. Form comments appear directly above what
they're commenting on, never below.
General toplevel commentary is not indented; these must always start with exactly two
semicolons ;; and be separated from the next form with a blank line. For long commentary,
consider using a #_ applied to a string for this purpose instead.
Margin comments start two spaces from the end of the code; they must always start with a
single semicolon ;. Margin comments may be continued on the next line.
When commenting out entire forms, prefer the #_ syntax. But if you do need line comments,
use the more general double-colon form.
Coding Style
Pythonic Names
Use Python's naming conventions where still applicable to Hy.
• The first parameter of a method is self,
• of a classmethod is cls.
Threading Macros
PREFER the threading macro or the threading tail macros when encountering deeply nested
s-expressions. However, be judicious when using them. Do use them when clarity and
readability improves; do not construct convoluted, hard to understand expressions.
;; BAD. Not wrong, but could be much clearer with a threading macro.
(setv NAMES
(with [f (open "names.txt")]
(sorted (.split (.replace (.strip (.read f))
"\""
"")
","))))
;; PREFERRED. This compiles exactly the same way as the above.
(setv NAMES
(with [f (open "names.txt")]
(-> (.read f)
.strip
(.replace "\"" "")
(.split ",")
sorted)))
;; BAD. Probably. The macro makes it less clear in this case.
(defn square? [x]
(->> 2
(pow (int (sqrt x)))
(= x)))
;; OK. Much clearer that the previous example above.
(defn square? [x]
(-> x
sqrt
int
(pow 2)
(= x))
;; PREFERRED. Judicious use.
;; You don't have to thread everything if it improves clarity.
(defn square? [x]
(= x (-> x sqrt int (pow 2))))
;; OK. Still clear enough with no threading macro this time.
(defn square? [x]
(= x (pow (int (sqrt x)) ; saw a "))", break.
2)) ; aligned with first arg to pow
Method Calls
Clojure-style dot notation is PREFERRED over the direct call of the object's method,
though both will continue to be supported.
;; PREFERRED
(with [fd (open "/etc/passwd")]
(print (.readlines fd)))
;; OK
(with [fd (open "/etc/passwd")]
(print (fd.readlines)))
Use More Arguments
PREFER using multiple arguments to multiple forms. But judicious use of redundant forms
can clarify intent. AVOID the separating blank line for toplevel forms in this case.
;; BAD
(setv x 1)
(setv y 2)
(setv z 3)
(setv foo 9)
(setv bar 10)
;; OK
(setv x 1
y 2
z 3
foo 9
bar 10)
;; PREFERRED
(setv x 1
y 2
z 3)
(setv foo 9
bar 10)
Imports
As in Python, group imports.
• Standard library imports (including Hy's) first.
• Then third-party modules,
• and finally internal modules.
PREFER one import form for each group.
PREFER alphabetical order within groups.
Require macros before any imports and group them the same way.
But sometimes imports are conditional or must be ordered a certain way for programmatic
reasons, which is OK.
;; PREFERRED
(require hy.extra.anaphoric [%])
(require thirdparty [some-macro])
(require mymacros [my-macro])
(import json re)
(import numpy :as np
pandas :as pd)
(import mymodule1)
Underscores
Prefer hyphens when separating words.
• PREFERRED foo-bar
• BAD foo_bar
Don't use leading hyphens, except for "operators" or symbols meant to be read as including
one, e.g. -Inf, ->foo.
Prefix private names with an underscore, not a dash. to avoid confusion with negated
literals like -Inf, -42 or -4/2.
• PREFERRED _x
• BAD -x
Write Python's magic "dunder" names the same as in Python. Like __init__, not --init-- or
otherwise, to be consistent with the private names rule above.
Private names should still separate words using dashes instead of underscores, to be
consistent with non-private parameter names and such that need the same name sans prefix,
like foo-bar, not foo_bar.
• PREFERRED _foo-bar
• BAD _foo_bar
;; BAD
;; What are you doing?
(_= spam 2) ; Throwing it away?
(_ 100 7) ; i18n?
;; PREFERRED
;; Clearly subtraction.
(-= spam 2)
(- 100 7)
;; BAD
;; This looks weird.
(_>> foo bar baz)
;; PREFERRED
;; OH, it's an arrow!
(->> foo bar baz)
;; Negative x?
(setv -x 100) ; BAD. Unless you really meant that?
;; PREFERRED
;; Oh, it's just a module private.
(setv _x 100)
;; BAD
(class Foo []
(defn __init-- [self] ...))
;; OK
(class Foo []
;; Less weird?
(defn --init-- [self] ...))
;; PREFERRED
(class Foo []
(defn __init__ [self] ...))
;; OK, but would be module private. (No import *)
(def ->dict [&rest pairs]
(dict (partition pairs)))
Thanks
• This guide is heavily inspired from @paultag 's blog post Hy Survival Guide
• The Clojure Style Guide
• Parinfer and Parlinter (the three laws)
• The Community Scheme Wiki scheme-style (ending bracket ends the line)
• Riastradh's Lisp Style Rules (Lisp programmers do not ... Azathoth forbid, count
brackets)
DOCUMENTATION INDEX
Contents:
Command Line Interface
hy
Command Line Options
-c <command>
Execute the Hy code in command.
$ hy -c "(print (+ 2 2))"
4
-i <command>
Execute the Hy code in command, then stay in REPL.
-m <module>
Execute the Hy code in module, including defmain if defined.
The -m flag terminates the options list so that all arguments after the module name
are passed to the module in sys.argv.
New in version 0.11.0.
--spy Print equivalent Python code before executing in REPL. For example:
=> (defn salutationsnm [name] (print (+ "Hy " name "!")))
def salutationsnm(name):
return print(((u'Hy ' + name) + u'!'))
=> (salutationsnm "YourName")
salutationsnm(u'YourName')
Hy YourName!
=>
--spy only works on REPL mode. .. versionadded:: 0.9.11
--repl-output-fn
Format REPL output using specific function (e.g., hy.contrib.hy-repr.hy-repr)
New in version 0.13.0.
-v Print the Hy version number and exit.
hyc
Command Line Options
file[, fileN]
Compile Hy code to Python bytecode. For example, save the following code as
hyname.hy:
(defn hy-hy [name]
(print (+ "Hy " name "!")))
(hy-hy "Afroman")
Then run:
$ hyc hyname.hy
$ python hyname.pyc
Hy Afroman!
hy2py
New in version 0.10.1.
Command Line Options
-s
--with-source
Show the parsed source structure.
-a
--with-ast
Show the generated AST.
-np
--without-python
Do not show the Python code generated from the AST.
Hy <-> Python interop
Despite being a Lisp, Hy aims to be fully compatible with Python. That means every Python
module or package can be imported in Hy code, and vice versa.
Mangling allows variable names to be spelled differently in Hy and Python. For example,
Python's str.format_map can be written str.format-map in Hy, and a Hy function named
valid? would be called is_valid in Python. In Python, you can import Hy's core functions
mangle and unmangle directly from the hy package.
Using Python from Hy
You can embed Python code directly into a Hy program with the special operators
py-specialform and pys-specialform.
Using a Python module from Hy is nice and easy: you just have to import it. If you have
the following in greetings.py in Python:
def greet(name):
print("hello," name)
You can use it in Hy:
(import greetings)
(.greet greetings "foo") ; prints "hello, foo"
You can also import .pyc bytecode files, of course.
Using Hy from Python
Suppose you have written some useful utilities in Hy, and you want to use them in regular
Python, or to share them with others as a package. Or suppose you work with somebody else,
who doesn't like Hy (!), and only uses Python.
In any case, you need to know how to use Hy from Python. Fear not, for it is easy.
If you save the following in greetings.hy:
(setv this-will-have-underscores "See?")
(defn greet [name] (print "Hello from Hy," name))
Then you can use it directly from Python, by importing Hy before importing the module. In
Python:
import hy
import greetings
greetings.greet("Foo") # prints "Hello from Hy, Foo"
print(greetings.this_will_have_underscores) # prints "See?"
If you create a package with Hy code, and you do the import hy in __init__.py, you can
then directly include the package. Of course, Hy still has to be installed.
Compiled files
You can also compile a module with hyc, which gives you a .pyc file. You can import that
file. Hy does not really need to be installed ; however, if in your code, you use any
symbol from core, a corresponding import statement will be generated, and Hy will have to
be installed.
Even if you do not use a Hy builtin, but just another function or variable with the name
of a Hy builtin, the import will be generated. For example, the previous code causes the
import of name from hy.core.language.
Bottom line: in most cases, Hy has to be installed.
Launching a Hy REPL from Python
You can use the function run_repl() to launch the Hy REPL from Python:
>>> import hy.cmdline
>>> hy.cmdline.run_repl()
hy 0.12.1 using CPython(default) 3.6.0 on Linux
=> (defn foo [] (print "bar"))
=> (test)
bar
If you want to print the Python code Hy generates for you, use the spy argument:
>>> import hy.cmdline
>>> hy.cmdline.run_repl(spy=True)
hy 0.12.1 using CPython(default) 3.6.0 on Linux
=> (defn test [] (print "bar"))
def test():
return print('bar')
=> (test)
test()
bar
Evaluating strings of Hy code from Python
Evaluating a string (or file object) containing a Hy expression requires two separate
steps. First, use the read_str function (or read for a file object) to turn the expression
into a Hy model:
>>> import hy
>>> expr = hy.read_str("(- (/ (+ 1 3 88) 2) 8)")
Then, use the eval function to evaluate it:
>>> hy.eval(expr)
38.0
Syntax
identifiers
An identifier consists of a nonempty sequence of Unicode characters that are not
whitespace nor any of the following: ( ) [ ] { } ' ". Hy first tries to parse each
identifier into a numeric literal, then into a keyword if that fails, and finally into a
symbol if that fails.
numeric literals
In addition to regular numbers, standard notation from Python for non-base 10 integers is
used. 0x for Hex, 0o for Octal, 0b for Binary.
(print 0x80 0b11101 0o102 30)
Underscores and commas can appear anywhere in a numeric literal except the very beginning.
They have no effect on the value of the literal, but they're useful for visually
separating digits.
(print 10,000,000,000 10_000_000_000)
Unlike Python, Hy provides literal forms for NaN and infinity: NaN, Inf, and -Inf.
string literals
Hy allows double-quoted strings (e.g., "hello"), but not single-quoted strings like
Python. The single-quote character ' is reserved for preventing the evaluation of a form
(e.g., '(+ 1 1)), as in most Lisps.
Python's so-called triple-quoted strings (e.g., '''hello''' and """hello""") aren't
supported. However, in Hy, unlike Python, any string literal can contain newlines.
Furthermore, Hy supports an alternative form of string literal called a "bracket string"
similar to Lua's long brackets. Bracket strings have customizable delimiters, like the
here-documents of other languages. A bracket string begins with #[FOO[ and ends with
]FOO], where FOO is any string not containing [ or ], including the empty string. (If FOO
is exactly f or begins with f-, the bracket string is interpreted as a format string.) For
example:
=> (print #[["That's very kind of yuo [sic]" Tom wrote back.]])
"That's very kind of yuo [sic]" Tom wrote back.
=> (print #[==[1 + 1 = 2]==])
1 + 1 = 2
A bracket string can contain newlines, but if it begins with one, the newline is removed,
so you can begin the content of a bracket string on the line following the opening
delimiter with no effect on the content. Any leading newlines past the first are
preserved.
Plain string literals support a variety of backslash escapes. To create a "raw string"
that interprets all backslashes literally, prefix the string with r, as in r"slash\not".
Bracket strings are always raw strings and don't allow the r prefix.
Like Python, Hy treats all string literals as sequences of Unicode characters by default.
You may prefix a plain string literal (but not a bracket string) with b to treat it as a
sequence of bytes.
Unlike Python, Hy only recognizes string prefixes (r, etc.) in lowercase.
format strings
A format string (or "f-string", or "formatted string literal") is a string literal with
embedded code, possibly accompanied by formatting commands. Hy f-strings work much like
Python f-strings except that the embedded code is in Hy rather than Python, and they're
supported on all versions of Python.
=> (print f"The sum is {(+ 1 1)}.")
The sum is 2.
Since ! and : are identifier characters in Hy, Hy decides where the code in a replacement
field ends, and any conversion or format specifier begins, by parsing exactly one form.
You can use do to combine several forms into one, as usual. Whitespace may be necessary to
terminate the form:
=> (setv foo "a")
=> (print f"{foo:x<5}")
…
NameError: name 'hyx_fooXcolonXxXlessHthan_signX5' is not defined
=> (print f"{foo :x<5}")
axxxx
Unlike Python, whitespace is allowed between a conversion and a format specifier.
Also unlike Python, comments and backslashes are allowed in replacement fields. Hy's
lexer will still process the whole format string normally, like any other string, before
any replacement fields are considered, so you may need to backslash your backslashes, and
you can't comment out a closing brace or the string delimiter.
keywords
An identifier headed by a colon, such as :foo, is a keyword. If a literal keyword appears
in a function call, it's used to indicate a keyword argument rather than passed in as a
value. For example, (f :foo 3) calls the function f with the keyword argument named foo
set to 3. Hence, trying to call a function on a literal keyword may fail: (f :foo) yields
the error Keyword argument :foo needs a value. To avoid this, you can quote the keyword,
as in (f ':foo), or use it as the value of another keyword argument, as in (f :arg :foo).
Keywords can be called like functions as shorthand for get. (:foo obj) is equivalent to
(get obj :foo). An optional default argument is also allowed: (:foo obj 2) or (:foo obj
:default 2) returns 2 if (get obj :foo) raises a KeyError.
symbols
Symbols are identifiers that are neither legal numeric literals nor legal keywords. In
most contexts, symbols are compiled to Python variable names. Some example symbols are
hello, +++, 3fiddy, $40, just✈wrong, and 🦑.
Since the rules for Hy symbols are much more permissive than the rules for Python
identifiers, Hy uses a mangling algorithm to convert its own names to Python-legal names.
The rules are:
• Convert all hyphens (-) to underscores (_). Thus, foo-bar becomes foo_bar.
• If the name ends with ?, remove it and prepend is_. Thus, tasty? becomes is_tasty.
• If the name still isn't Python-legal, make the following changes. A name could be
Python-illegal because it contains a character that's never legal in a Python name, it
contains a character that's illegal in that position, or it's equal to a Python reserved
word.
• Prepend hyx_ to the name.
• Replace each illegal character with XfooX, where foo is the Unicode character name in
lowercase, with spaces replaced by underscores and hyphens replaced by H. Replace X
itself the same way. If the character doesn't have a name, use U followed by its code
point in lowercase hexadecimal.
Thus, green☘ becomes hyx_greenXshamrockX and if becomes hyx_if.
• Finally, any added hyx_ or is_ is added after any leading underscores, because leading
underscores have special significance to Python. Thus, _tasty? becomes _is_tasty
instead of is__tasty.
Mangling isn't something you should have to think about often, but you may see mangled
names in error messages, the output of hy2py, etc. A catch to be aware of is that
mangling, as well as the inverse "unmangling" operation offered by the unmangle function,
isn't one-to-one. Two different symbols can mangle to the same string and hence compile to
the same Python variable. The chief practical consequence of this is that - and _ are
interchangeable in all symbol names, so you shouldn't assign to the one-character name _ ,
or else you'll interfere with certain uses of subtraction.
discard prefix
Hy supports the Extensible Data Notation discard prefix, like Clojure. Any form prefixed
with #_ is discarded instead of compiled. This completely removes the form so it doesn't
evaluate to anything, not even None. It's often more useful than linewise comments for
commenting out a form, because it respects code structure even when part of another form
is on the same line. For example:
=> (print "Hy" "cruel" "World!")
Hy cruel World!
=> (print "Hy" #_"cruel" "World!")
Hy World!
=> (+ 1 1 (print "Math is hard!"))
Math is hard!
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType'
=> (+ 1 1 #_(print "Math is hard!"))
2
Built-Ins
Hy features a number of special forms that are used to help generate correct Python AST.
The following are "special" forms, which may have behavior that's slightly unexpected in
some situations.
^
The ^ symbol is used to denote annotations in three different contexts:
• Standalone variable annotations.
• Variable annotations in a setv call.
• Function argument annotations.
They implement PEP 526 and PEP 3107.
Here is some example syntax of all three usages:
; Annotate the variable x as an int (equivalent to `x: int`).
(^int x)
; Can annotate with expressions if needed (equivalent to `y: f(x)`).
(^(f x) y)
; Annotations with an assignment: each annotation (int, str) covers the term that
; immediately follows.
; Equivalent to: x: int = 1; y = 2; z: str = 3
(setv ^int x 1 y 2 ^str z 3)
; Annotate a as an int, c as an int, and b as a str.
; Equivalent to: def func(a: int, b: str = None, c: int = 1): ...
(defn func [^int a &optional ^str b ^int [c 1]] ...)
The rules are:
• The value to annotate with is the value that immediately follows the caret.
• There must be no space between the caret and the value to annotate, otherwise it will be
interpreted as a bitwise XOR like the Python operator.
• The annotation always comes (and is evaluated) before the value being annotated. This is
unlike Python, where it comes and is evaluated after the value being annotated.
Note that variable annotations are only supported on Python 3.6+.
For annotating items with generic types, the of macro will likely be of use.
.
New in version 0.10.0.
. is used to perform attribute access on objects. It uses a small DSL to allow quick
access to attributes and items in a nested data structure.
For instance,
(. foo bar baz [(+ 1 2)] frob)
Compiles down to:
foo.bar.baz[1 + 2].frob
. compiles its first argument (in the example, foo) as the object on which to do the
attribute dereference. It uses bare symbols as attributes to access (in the example, bar,
baz, frob), and compiles the contents of lists (in the example, [(+ 1 2)]) for indexation.
Other arguments raise a compilation error.
Access to unknown attributes raises an AttributeError. Access to unknown keys raises an
IndexError (on lists and tuples) or a KeyError (on dictionaries).
->
-> (or the threading macro) is used to avoid nesting of expressions. The threading macro
inserts each expression into the next expression's first argument place. The following
code demonstrates this:
=> (defn output [a b] (print a b))
=> (-> (+ 4 6) (output 5))
10 5
->>
->> (or the threading tail macro) is similar to the threading macro, but instead of
inserting each expression into the next expression's first argument, it appends it as the
last argument. The following code demonstrates this:
=> (defn output [a b] (print a b))
=> (->> (+ 4 6) (output 5))
5 10
and
and is used in logical expressions. It takes at least two parameters. If all parameters
evaluate to True, the last parameter is returned. In any other case, the first false value
will be returned. Example usage:
=> (and True False)
False
=> (and True True)
True
=> (and True 1)
1
=> (and True [] False True)
[]
NOTE:
and short-circuits and stops evaluating parameters as soon as the first false is
encountered.
=> (and False (print "hello"))
False
as->
New in version 0.12.0.
Expands to sequence of assignments to the provided name, starting with head. The previous
result is thus available in the subsequent form. Returns the final result, and leaves the
name bound to it in the local scope. This behaves much like the other threading macros,
but requires you to specify the threading point per form via the name instead of always
the first or last argument.
;; example how -> and as-> relate
=> (as-> 0 it
... (inc it)
... (inc it))
2
=> (-> 0 inc inc)
2
;; create data for our cuttlefish database
=> (setv data [{:name "hooded cuttlefish"
... :classification {:subgenus "Acanthosepion"
... :species "Sepia prashadi"}
... :discovered {:year 1936
... :name "Ronald Winckworth"}}
... {:name "slender cuttlefish"
... :classification {:subgenus "Doratosepion"
... :species "Sepia braggi"}
... :discovered {:year 1907
... :name "Sir Joseph Cooke Verco"}}])
;; retrieve name of first entry
=> (as-> (first data) it
... (:name it))
'hooded cuttlefish'
;; retrieve species of first entry
=> (as-> (first data) it
... (:classification it)
... (:species it))
'Sepia prashadi'
;; find out who discovered slender cuttlefish
=> (as-> (filter (fn [entry] (= (:name entry)
... "slender cuttlefish")) data) it
... (first it)
... (:discovered it)
... (:name it))
'Sir Joseph Cooke Verco'
;; more convoluted example to load web page and retrieve data from it
=> (import [urllib.request [urlopen]])
=> (as-> (urlopen "http://docs.hylang.org/en/stable/") it
... (.read it)
... (.decode it "utf-8")
... (drop (.index it "Welcome") it)
... (take 30 it)
... (list it)
... (.join "" it))
'Welcome to Hy’s documentation!
NOTE:
In these examples, the REPL will report a tuple (e.g. ('Sepia prashadi', 'Sepia
prashadi')) as the result, but only a single value is actually returned.
assert
assert is used to verify conditions while the program is running. If the condition is not
met, an AssertionError is raised. assert may take one or two parameters. The first
parameter is the condition to check, and it should evaluate to either True or False. The
second parameter, optional, is a label for the assert, and is the string that will be
raised with the AssertionError. For example:
(assert (= variable expected-value))
(assert False)
; AssertionError
(assert (= 1 2) "one should equal two")
; AssertionError: one should equal two
assoc
assoc is used to associate a key with a value in a dictionary or to set an index of a list
to a value. It takes at least three parameters: the data structure to be modified, a key
or index, and a value. If more than three parameters are used, it will associate in pairs.
Examples of usage:
=>(do
... (setv collection {})
... (assoc collection "Dog" "Bark")
... (print collection))
{u'Dog': u'Bark'}
=>(do
... (setv collection {})
... (assoc collection "Dog" "Bark" "Cat" "Meow")
... (print collection))
{u'Cat': u'Meow', u'Dog': u'Bark'}
=>(do
... (setv collection [1 2 3 4])
... (assoc collection 2 None)
... (print collection))
[1, 2, None, 4]
NOTE:
assoc modifies the datastructure in place and returns None.
await
await creates an await expression. It takes exactly one argument: the object to wait for.
=> (import asyncio)
=> (defn/a main []
... (print "hello")
... (await (asyncio.sleep 1))
... (print "world"))
=> (asyncio.run (main))
hello
world
break
break is used to break out from a loop. It terminates the loop immediately. The following
example has an infinite while loop that is terminated as soon as the user enters k.
(while True (if (= "k" (input "? "))
(break)
(print "Try again")))
cmp
cmp creates a comparison expression. It isn't required for unchained comparisons, which
have only one comparison operator, nor for chains of the same operator. For those cases,
you can use the comparison operators directly with Hy's usual prefix syntax, as in (= x 1)
or (< 1 2 3). The use of cmp is to construct chains of heterogeneous operators, such as x
<= y < z. It uses an infix syntax with the general form
(cmp ARG OP ARG OP ARG…)
Hence, (cmp x <= y < z) is equivalent to (and (<= x y) (< y z)), including
short-circuiting, except that y is only evaluated once.
Each ARG is an arbitrary form, which does not itself use infix syntax. Use py if you want
fully Python-style operator syntax. You can also nest cmp forms, although this is rarely
useful. Each OP is a literal comparison operator; other forms that resolve to a comparison
operator are not allowed.
At least two ARGs and one OP are required, and every OP must be followed by an ARG.
As elsewhere in Hy, the equality operator is spelled =, not == as in Python.
comment
The comment macro ignores its body and always expands to None. Unlike linewise comments,
the body of the comment macro must be grammatically valid Hy, so the compiler can tell
where the comment ends. Besides the semicolon linewise comments, Hy also has the #_
discard prefix syntax to discard the next form. This is completely discarded and doesn't
expand to anything, not even None.
=> (print (comment <h1>Surprise!</h1>
... <p>You'd be surprised what's grammatically valid in Hy.</p>
... <p>(Keep delimiters in balance, and you're mostly good to go.)</p>)
... "Hy")
None Hy
=> (print #_(comment <h1>Surprise!</h1>
... <p>You'd be surprised what's grammatically valid in Hy.</p>
... <p>(Keep delimiters in balance, and you're mostly good to go.)</p>))
... "Hy")
Hy
cond
cond can be used to build nested if statements. The following example shows the
relationship between the macro and its expansion:
(cond [condition-1 result-1]
[condition-2 result-2])
(if condition-1 result-1
(if condition-2 result-2))
If only the condition is given in a branch, then the condition is also used as the result.
The expansion of this single argument version is demonstrated below:
(cond [condition-1]
[condition-2])
(if condition-1 condition-1
(if condition-2 condition-2))
As shown below, only the first matching result block is executed.
=> (defn check-value [value]
... (cond [(< value 5) (print "value is smaller than 5")]
... [(= value 5) (print "value is equal to 5")]
... [(> value 5) (print "value is greater than 5")]
... [True (print "value is something that it should not be")]))
=> (check-value 6)
value is greater than 5
continue
continue returns execution to the start of a loop. In the following example,
(side-effect1) is called for each iteration. (side-effect2), however, is only called on
every other value in the list.
;; assuming that (side-effect1) and (side-effect2) are functions and
;; collection is a list of numerical values
(for [x collection]
(side-effect1 x)
(if (% x 2)
(continue))
(side-effect2 x))
do
do (called progn in some Lisps) takes any number of forms, evaluates them, and returns the
value of the last one, or None if no forms were provided.
=> (+ 1 (do (setv x (+ 1 1)) x))
3
doc / #doc
Documentation macro and tag macro. Gets help for macros or tag macros, respectively.
=> (doc doc)
Help on function (doc) in module hy.core.macros:
(doc)(symbol)
macro documentation
Gets help for a macro function available in this module.
Use ``require`` to make other macros available.
Use ``#doc foo`` instead for help with tag macro ``#foo``.
Use ``(help foo)`` instead for help with runtime objects.
=> (doc comment)
Help on function (comment) in module hy.core.macros:
(comment)(*body)
Ignores body and always expands to None
=> #doc doc
Help on function #doc in module hy.core.macros:
#doc(symbol)
tag macro documentation
Gets help for a tag macro function available in this module.
dfor
dfor creates a dictionary comprehension. Its syntax is the same as that of lfor except
that the final value form must be a literal list of two elements, the first of which
becomes each key and the second of which becomes each value.
=> (dfor x (range 5) [x (* x 10)])
{0: 0, 1: 10, 2: 20, 3: 30, 4: 40}
setv
setv is used to bind a value, object, or function to a symbol. For example:
=> (setv names ["Alice" "Bob" "Charlie"])
=> (print names)
[u'Alice', u'Bob', u'Charlie']
=> (setv counter (fn [collection item] (.count collection item)))
=> (counter [1 2 3 4 5 2 3] 2)
2
You can provide more than one target–value pair, and the assignments will be made in
order:
(setv x 1 y x x 2)
(print x y) ; => 2 1
You can perform parallel assignments or unpack the source value with square brackets and
unpack-iterable, unpack-mapping:
(setv duo ["tim" "eric"])
(setv [guy1 guy2] duo)
(print guy1 guy2) ; => tim eric
(setv [letter1 letter2 #* others] "abcdefg")
(print letter1 letter2 others) ; => a b ['c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g']
setx
Whereas setv creates an assignment statement, setx creates an assignment expression (see
PEP 572). It requires Python 3.8 or later. Only one target–value pair is allowed, and the
target must be a bare symbol, but the setx form returns the assigned value instead of
None.
=> (when (> (setx x (+ 1 2)) 0)
... (print x "is greater than 0"))
3 is greater than 0
defclass
New classes are declared with defclass. It can take optional parameters in the following
order: a list defining (a) possible super class(es) and a string (py:docstring).
(defclass class-name [super-class-1 super-class-2]
"docstring"
(setv attribute1 value1)
(setv attribute2 value2)
(defn method [self] (print "hello!")))
Both values and functions can be bound on the new class as shown by the example below:
=> (defclass Cat []
... (setv age None)
... (setv colour "white")
...
... (defn speak [self] (print "Meow")))
=> (setv spot (Cat))
=> (setv spot.colour "Black")
'Black'
=> (.speak spot)
Meow
defn
defn is used to define functions. It requires two arguments: a name (given as a symbol)
and a list of parameters (also given as symbols). Any remaining arguments constitute the
body of the function.
(defn name [params] bodyform1 bodyform2...)
If there at least two body forms, and the first of them is a string literal, this string
becomes the py:docstring of the function.
Parameters may be prefixed with the following special symbols. If you use more than one,
they can only appear in the given order (so all &optional parameters must precede any
&rest parameter, &rest must precede &kwonly, and &kwonly must precede &kwargs). This is
the same order that Python requires.
&optional
All following parameters are optional. They may be given as two-argument lists,
where the first element is the parameter name and the second is the default value.
The parameter can also be given as a single item, in which case the default value
is None.
The following example defines a function with one required positional argument as
well as three optional arguments. The first optional argument defaults to None and
the latter two default to "(" and ")", respectively.
=> (defn format-pair [left-val &optional right-val [open-text "("] [close-text ")"]]
... (+ open-text (str left-val) ", " (str right-val) close-text))
=> (format-pair 3)
'(3, None)'
=> (format-pair "A" "B")
'(A, B)'
=> (format-pair "A" "B" "<" ">")
'<A, B>'
=> (format-pair "A" :open-text "<" :close-text ">")
'<A, None>'
&rest The following parameter will contain a list of 0 or more positional arguments. No
other positional parameters may be specified after this one.
The following code example defines a function that can be given 0 to n numerical
parameters. It then sums every odd number and subtracts every even number.
=> (defn zig-zag-sum [&rest numbers]
(setv odd-numbers (lfor x numbers :if (odd? x) x)
even-numbers (lfor x numbers :if (even? x) x))
(- (sum odd-numbers) (sum even-numbers)))
=> (zig-zag-sum)
0
=> (zig-zag-sum 3 9 4)
8
=> (zig-zag-sum 1 2 3 4 5 6)
-3
&kwonly
New in version 0.12.0.
All following parmaeters can only be supplied as keywords. Like &optional, the
parameter may be marked as optional by declaring it as a two-element list
containing the parameter name following by the default value.
=> (defn compare [a b &kwonly keyfn [reverse False]]
... (setv result (keyfn a b))
... (if (not reverse)
... result
... (- result)))
=> (compare "lisp" "python"
... :keyfn (fn [x y]
... (reduce - (map (fn [s] (ord (first s))) [x y]))))
-4
=> (compare "lisp" "python"
... :keyfn (fn [x y]
... (reduce - (map (fn [s] (ord (first s))) [x y])))
... :reverse True)
4
=> (compare "lisp" "python")
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<input>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: compare() missing 1 required keyword-only argument: 'keyfn'
&kwargs
Like &rest, but for keyword arugments. The following parameter will contain 0 or
more keyword arguments.
The following code examples defines a function that will print all keyword
arguments and their values.
=> (defn print-parameters [&kwargs kwargs]
... (for [(, k v) (.items kwargs)] (print k v)))
=> (print-parameters :parameter-1 1 :parameter-2 2)
parameter_1 1
parameter_2 2
; to avoid the mangling of '-' to '_', use unpacking:
=> (print-parameters #** {"parameter-1" 1 "parameter-2" 2})
parameter-1 1
parameter-2 2
The following example uses all of &optional, &rest, &kwonly, and &kwargs in order to show
their interactions with each other. The function renders an HTML tag. It requires an
argument tag-name, a string which is the tag name. It has one optional argument, delim,
which defaults to "" and is placed between each child. The rest of the arguments,
children, are the tag's children or content. A single keyword-only argument, empty, is
included and defaults to False. empty changes how the tag is rendered if it has no
children. Normally, a tag with no children is rendered like <div></div>. If empty is True,
then it will render like <div />. The rest of the keyword arguments, props, render as
HTML attributes.
=> (defn render-html-tag [tag-name &optional [delim ""] &rest children &kwonly [empty False] &kwargs attrs]
... (setv rendered-attrs (.join " " (lfor (, key val) (.items attrs) (+ (unmangle (str key)) "=\"" (str val) "\""))))
... (if rendered-attrs ; If we have attributes, prefix them with a space after the tag name
... (setv rendered-attrs (+ " " rendered-attrs)))
... (setv rendered-children (.join delim children))
... (if (and (not children) empty)
... (+ "<" tag-name rendered-attrs " />")
... (+ "<" tag-name rendered-attrs ">" rendered-children "</" tag-name ">")))
=> (render-html-tag "div")
'<div></div'>
=> (render-html-tag "img" :empty True)
'<img />'
=> (render-html-tag "img" :id "china" :class "big-image" :empty True)
'<img id="china" class="big-image" />'
=> (render-html-tag "p" " --- " (render-html-tag "span" "" :class "fancy" "I'm fancy!") "I'm to the right of fancy" "I'm alone :(")
'<p><span class="fancy">I\'m fancy!</span> --- I\'m to right right of fancy --- I\'m alone :(</p>'
defn/a
defn/a macro is a variant of defn that instead defines coroutines. It takes three
parameters: the name of the function to define, a vector of parameters, and the body of
the function:
(defn/a name [params] body)
defmain
New in version 0.10.1.
The defmain macro defines a main function that is immediately called with sys.argv as
arguments if and only if this file is being executed as a script. In other words, this:
(defmain [&rest args]
(do-something-with args))
is the equivalent of:
def main(*args):
do_something_with(args)
return 0
if __name__ == "__main__":
import sys
retval = main(*sys.argv)
if isinstance(retval, int):
sys.exit(retval)
Note that as you can see above, if you return an integer from this function, this will be
used as the exit status for your script. (Python defaults to exit status 0 otherwise,
which means everything's okay!) Since (sys.exit 0) is not run explicitly in the case of a
non-integer return from defmain, it's a good idea to put (defmain) as the last piece of
code in your file.
If you want fancy command-line arguments, you can use the standard Python module argparse
in the usual way:
(import argparse)
(defmain [&rest _]
(setv parser (argparse.ArgumentParser))
(.add-argument parser "STRING"
:help "string to replicate")
(.add-argument parser "-n" :type int :default 3
:help "number of copies")
(setv args (parser.parse_args))
(print (* args.STRING args.n))
0)
defmacro
defmacro is used to define macros. The general format is (defmacro name [parameters]
expr).
The following example defines a macro that can be used to swap order of elements in code,
allowing the user to write code in infix notation, where operator is in between the
operands.
=> (defmacro infix [code]
... (quasiquote (
... (unquote (get code 1))
... (unquote (get code 0))
... (unquote (get code 2)))))
=> (infix (1 + 1))
2
defmacro/g!
New in version 0.9.12.
defmacro/g! is a special version of defmacro that is used to automatically generate gensym
for any symbol that starts with g!.
For example, g!a would become (gensym "a").
SEE ALSO:
Section using-gensym
defmacro!
defmacro! is like defmacro/g! plus automatic once-only evaluation for o! parameters, which
are available as the equivalent g! symbol.
For example,
=> (defn expensive-get-number [] (print "spam") 14)
=> (defmacro triple-1 [n] `(+ ~n ~n ~n))
=> (triple-1 (expensive-get-number)) ; evals n three times
spam
spam
spam
42
=> (defmacro/g! triple-2 [n] `(do (setv ~g!n ~n) (+ ~g!n ~g!n ~g!n)))
=> (triple-2 (expensive-get-number)) ; avoid repeats with a gensym
spam
42
=> (defmacro! triple-3 [o!n] `(+ ~g!n ~g!n ~g!n))
=> (triple-3 (expensive-get-number)) ; easier with defmacro!
spam
42
deftag
New in version 0.13.0.
deftag defines a tag macro. A tag macro is a unary macro that has the same semantics as an
ordinary macro defined with defmacro. It is called with the syntax #tag FORM, where tag is
the name of the macro, and FORM is any form. The tag is often only one character, but it
can be any symbol.
=> (deftag ♣ [expr] `[~expr ~expr])
<function <lambda> at 0x7f76d0271158>
=> #♣ 5
[5, 5]
=> (setv x 0)
=> #♣(+= x 1)
[None, None]
=> x
2
In this example, if you used (defmacro ♣ ...) instead of (deftag ♣ ...), you would call
the macro as (♣ 5) or (♣ (+= x 1)).
The syntax for calling tag macros is similar to that of reader macros a la Common Lisp's
SET-MACRO-CHARACTER. In fact, before Hy 0.13.0, tag macros were called "reader macros",
and defined with defreader rather than deftag. True reader macros are not (yet)
implemented in Hy.
del
New in version 0.9.12.
del removes an object from the current namespace.
=> (setv foo 42)
=> (del foo)
=> foo
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<console>", line 1, in <module>
NameError: name 'foo' is not defined
del can also remove objects from mappings, lists, and more.
=> (setv test (list (range 10)))
=> test
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (del (cut test 2 4)) ;; remove items from 2 to 4 excluded
=> test
[0, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (setv dic {"foo" "bar"})
=> dic
{"foo": "bar"}
=> (del (get dic "foo"))
=> dic
{}
doto
New in version 0.10.1.
doto is used to simplify a sequence of method calls to an object.
=> (doto [] (.append 1) (.append 2) .reverse)
[2, 1]
=> (setv collection [])
=> (.append collection 1)
=> (.append collection 2)
=> (.reverse collection)
=> collection
[2, 1]
eval-and-compile
eval-and-compile is a special form that takes any number of forms. The input forms are
evaluated as soon as the eval-and-compile form is compiled, instead of being deferred
until run-time. The input forms are also left in the program so they can be executed at
run-time as usual. So, if you compile and immediately execute a program (as calling hy
foo.hy does when foo.hy doesn't have an up-to-date byte-compiled version),
eval-and-compile forms will be evaluated twice.
One possible use of eval-and-compile is to make a function available both at compile-time
(so a macro can call it while expanding) and run-time (so it can be called like any other
function):
(eval-and-compile
(defn add [x y]
(+ x y)))
(defmacro m [x]
(add x 2))
(print (m 3)) ; prints 5
(print (add 3 6)) ; prints 9
Had the defn not been wrapped in eval-and-compile, m wouldn't be able to call add, because
when the compiler was expanding (m 3), add wouldn't exist yet.
eval-when-compile
eval-when-compile is like eval-and-compile, but the code isn't executed at run-time.
Hence, eval-when-compile doesn't directly contribute any code to the final program,
although it can still change Hy's state while compiling (e.g., by defining a function).
(eval-when-compile
(defn add [x y]
(+ x y)))
(defmacro m [x]
(add x 2))
(print (m 3)) ; prints 5
(print (add 3 6)) ; raises NameError: name 'add' is not defined
first
first is a function for accessing the first element of a collection.
=> (first (range 10))
0
It is implemented as (next (iter coll) None), so it works with any iterable, and if given
an empty iterable, it will return None instead of raising an exception.
=> (first (repeat 10))
10
=> (first [])
None
for
for is used to evaluate some forms for each element in an iterable object, such as a list.
The return values of the forms are discarded and the for form returns None.
=> (for [x [1 2 3]]
... (print "iterating")
... (print x))
iterating
1
iterating
2
iterating
3
In its square-bracketed first argument, for allows the same types of clauses as lfor.
=> (for [x [1 2 3] :if (!= x 2) y [7 8]]
... (print x y))
1 7
1 8
3 7
3 8
Furthermore, the last argument of for can be an (else …) form. This form is executed
after the last iteration of the for's outermost iteration clause, but only if that
outermost loop terminates normally. If it's jumped out of with e.g. break, the else is
ignored.
=> (for [element [1 2 3]] (if (< element 3)
... (print element)
... (break))
... (else (print "loop finished")))
1
2
=> (for [element [1 2 3]] (if (< element 4)
... (print element)
... (break))
... (else (print "loop finished")))
1
2
3
loop finished
gensym
New in version 0.9.12.
gensym is used to generate a unique symbol that allows macros to be written without
accidental variable name clashes.
=> (gensym)
HySymbol('_G\uffff1')
=> (gensym "x")
HySymbol('_x\uffff2')
SEE ALSO:
Section using-gensym
get
get is used to access single elements in collections. get takes at least two parameters:
the data structure and the index or key of the item. It will then return the corresponding
value from the collection. If multiple index or key values are provided, they are used to
access successive elements in a nested structure. Example usage:
=> (do
... (setv animals {"dog" "bark" "cat" "meow"}
... numbers (, "zero" "one" "two" "three")
... nested [0 1 ["a" "b" "c"] 3 4])
... (print (get animals "dog"))
... (print (get numbers 2))
... (print (get nested 2 1)))
bark
two
b
NOTE:
get raises a KeyError if a dictionary is queried for a non-existing key.
NOTE:
get raises an IndexError if a list or a tuple is queried for an index that is out of
bounds.
gfor
gfor creates a generator expression. Its syntax is the same as that of lfor. The
difference is that gfor returns an iterator, which evaluates and yields values one at a
time.
=> (setv accum [])
=> (list (take-while
... (fn [x] (< x 5))
... (gfor x (count) :do (.append accum x) x)))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
=> accum
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
global
global can be used to mark a symbol as global. This allows the programmer to assign a
value to a global symbol. Reading a global symbol does not require the global keyword --
only assigning it does.
The following example shows how the global symbol a is assigned a value in a function and
is later on printed in another function. Without the global keyword, the second function
would have raised a NameError.
(defn set-a [value]
(global a)
(setv a value))
(defn print-a []
(print a))
(set-a 5)
(print-a)
if / if* / if-not
New in version 0.10.0: if-not
if / if* / if-not respect Python truthiness, that is, a test fails if it evaluates to a
"zero" (including values of len zero, None, and False), and passes otherwise, but values
with a __bool__ method can override this.
The if macro is for conditionally selecting an expression for evaluation. The result of
the selected expression becomes the result of the entire if form. if can select a group of
expressions with the help of a do block.
if takes any number of alternating test and then expressions, plus an optional else
expression at the end, which defaults to None. if checks each test in turn, and selects
the then corresponding to the first passed test. if does not evaluate any expressions
following its selection, similar to the if/elif/else control structure from Python. If no
tests pass, if selects else.
The if* special form is restricted to 2 or 3 arguments, but otherwise works exactly like
if (which expands to nested if* forms), so there is generally no reason to use it
directly.
if-not is similar to if* but the second expression will be executed when the condition
fails while the third and final expression is executed when the test succeeds -- the
opposite order of if*. The final expression is again optional and defaults to None.
Example usage:
(print (if (< n 0.0) "negative"
(= n 0.0) "zero"
(> n 0.0) "positive"
"not a number"))
(if* (money-left? account)
(print "let's go shopping")
(print "let's go and work"))
(if-not (money-left? account)
(print "let's go and work")
(print "let's go shopping"))
lif and lif-not
New in version 0.10.0.
New in version 0.11.0: lif-not
For those that prefer a more Lispy if clause, we have lif. This only considers None to be
false! All other "false-ish" Python values are considered true. Conversely, we have
lif-not in parallel to if and if-not which reverses the comparison.
=> (lif True "true" "false")
"true"
=> (lif False "true" "false")
"true"
=> (lif 0 "true" "false")
"true"
=> (lif None "true" "false")
"false"
=> (lif-not None "true" "false")
"true"
=> (lif-not False "true" "false")
"false"
import
import is used to import modules, like in Python. There are several ways that import can
be used.
;; Imports each of these modules
;;
;; Python:
;; import sys
;; import os.path
(import sys os.path)
;; Import from a module
;;
;; Python: from os.path import exists, isdir, isfile
(import [os.path [exists isdir isfile]])
;; Import with an alias
;;
;; Python: import sys as systest
(import [sys :as systest])
;; You can list as many imports as you like of different types.
;;
;; Python:
;; from tests.resources import kwtest, function_with_a_dash
;; from os.path import exists, isdir as is_dir, isfile as is_file
;; import sys as systest
(import [tests.resources [kwtest function-with-a-dash]]
[os.path [exists
isdir :as dir?
isfile :as file?]]
[sys :as systest])
;; Import all module functions into current namespace
;;
;; Python: from sys import *
(import [sys [*]])
fn
fn, like Python's lambda, can be used to define an anonymous function. Unlike Python's
lambda, the body of the function can comprise several statements. The parameters are
similar to defn: the first parameter is vector of parameters and the rest is the body of
the function. fn returns a new function. In the following example, an anonymous function
is defined and passed to another function for filtering output.
=> (setv people [{:name "Alice" :age 20}
... {:name "Bob" :age 25}
... {:name "Charlie" :age 50}
... {:name "Dave" :age 5}])
=> (defn display-people [people filter]
... (for [person people] (if (filter person) (print (:name person)))))
=> (display-people people (fn [person] (< (:age person) 25)))
Alice
Dave
Just as in normal function definitions, if the first element of the body is a string, it
serves as a docstring. This is useful for giving class methods docstrings.
=> (setv times-three
... (fn [x]
... "Multiplies input by three and returns the result."
... (* x 3)))
This can be confirmed via Python's built-in help function:
=> (help times-three)
Help on function times_three:
times_three(x)
Multiplies input by three and returns result
(END)
fn/a
fn/a is a variant of fn than defines an anonymous coroutine. The parameters are similar
to defn/a: the first parameter is vector of parameters and the rest is the body of the
function. fn/a returns a new coroutine.
last
New in version 0.11.0.
last can be used for accessing the last element of a collection:
=> (last [2 4 6])
6
lfor
The comprehension forms lfor, sfor, dfor, gfor, and for are used to produce various kinds
of loops, including Python-style comprehensions. lfor in particular creates a list
comprehension. A simple use of lfor is:
=> (lfor x (range 5) (* 2 x))
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]
x is the name of a new variable, which is bound to each element of (range 5). Each such
element in turn is used to evaluate the value form (* 2 x), and the results are
accumulated into a list.
Here's a more complex example:
=> (lfor
... x (range 3)
... y (range 3)
... :if (!= x y)
... :setv total (+ x y)
... [x y total])
[[0, 1, 1], [0, 2, 2], [1, 0, 1], [1, 2, 3], [2, 0, 2], [2, 1, 3]]
When there are several iteration clauses (here, the pairs of forms x (range 3) and y
(range 3)), the result works like a nested loop or Cartesian product: all combinations are
considered in lexicographic order.
The general form of lfor is:
(lfor CLAUSES VALUE)
where the VALUE is an arbitrary form that is evaluated to produce each element of the
result list, and CLAUSES is any number of clauses. There are several types of clauses:
• Iteration clauses, which look like LVALUE ITERABLE. The LVALUE is usually just a symbol,
but could be something more complicated, like [x y].
• :async LVALUE ITERABLE, which is an asynchronous form of iteration clause.
• :do FORM, which simply evaluates the FORM. If you use (continue) or (break) here, they
will apply to the innermost iteration clause before the :do.
• :setv LVALUE RVALUE, which is equivalent to :do (setv LVALUE RVALUE).
• :if CONDITION, which is equivalent to :do (unless CONDITION (continue)).
For lfor, sfor, gfor, and dfor, variables are scoped as if the comprehension form were its
own function, so variables defined by an iteration clause or :setv are not visible outside
the form. In fact, these forms are implemented as generator functions whenever they
contain Python statements, with the attendant consequences for calling return. By
contrast, for shares the caller's scope.
nonlocal
New in version 0.11.1.
nonlocal can be used to mark a symbol as not local to the current scope. The parameters
are the names of symbols to mark as nonlocal. This is necessary to modify variables
through nested fn scopes:
(defn some-function []
(setv x 0)
(register-some-callback
(fn [stuff]
(nonlocal x)
(setv x stuff))))
Without the call to (nonlocal x), the inner function would redefine x to stuff inside its
local scope instead of overwriting the x in the outer function.
See PEP3104 for further information.
not
not is used in logical expressions. It takes a single parameter and returns a reversed
truth value. If True is given as a parameter, False will be returned, and vice-versa.
Example usage:
=> (not True)
False
=> (not False)
True
=> (not None)
True
or
or is used in logical expressions. It takes at least two parameters. It will return the
first non-false parameter. If no such value exists, the last parameter will be returned.
=> (or True False)
True
=> (and False False)
False
=> (and False 1 True False)
1
NOTE:
or short-circuits and stops evaluating parameters as soon as the first true value is
encountered.
=> (or True (print "hello"))
True
of
of is an alias for get, but with special semantics designed for handling PEP 484's generic
types.
of has three forms:
• (of T) will simply become T.
• (of T x) will become (get T x).
• (of T x y ...) (where the ... represents zero or more arguments) will become (get T (, x
y ...)).
For instance:
(of str) ; => str
(of List int) ; => List[int]
(of Set int) ; => Set[int]
(of Dict str str) ; => Dict[str, str]
(of Tuple str int) ; => Tuple[str, int]
(of Callable [int str] str) ; => Callable[[int, str], str]
py
py parses the given Python code at compile-time and inserts the result into the generated
abstract syntax tree. Thus, you can mix Python code into a Hy program. Only a Python
expression is allowed, not statements; use pys if you want to use Python statements. The
value of the expression is returned from the py form.
(print "A result from Python:" (py "'hello' + 'world'"))
The code must be given as a single string literal, but you can still use macros, eval-fn,
and related tools to construct the py form. If having to backslash-escape internal double
quotes is getting you down, try a bracket string. If you want to evaluate some Python code
that's only defined at run-time, try the standard Python function eval().
Python code need not syntactically round-trip if you use hy2py on a Hy program that uses
py or pys. For example, comments will be removed.
pys
As py, but the code can consist of zero or more statements, including compound statements
such as for and def. pys always returns None. Also, the code string is dedented with
textwrap.dedent() before parsing, which allows you to intend the code to match the
surrounding Hy code, but significant leading whitespace in embedded string literals will
be removed.
(pys "myvar = 5")
(print "myvar is" myvar)
quasiquote
quasiquote allows you to quote a form, but also selectively evaluate expressions.
Expressions inside a quasiquote can be selectively evaluated using unquote (~). The
evaluated form can also be spliced using unquote-splice (~@). Quasiquote can be also
written using the backquote (`) symbol.
;; let `qux' be a variable with value (bar baz)
`(foo ~qux)
; equivalent to '(foo (bar baz))
`(foo ~@qux)
; equivalent to '(foo bar baz)
quote
quote returns the form passed to it without evaluating it. quote can alternatively be
written using the apostrophe (') symbol.
=> (setv x '(print "Hello World"))
=> x ; variable x is set to unevaluated expression
HyExpression([
HySymbol('print'),
HyString('Hello World')])
=> (eval x)
Hello World
require
require is used to import macros from one or more given modules. It allows parameters in
all the same formats as import. The require form itself produces no code in the final
program: its effect is purely at compile-time, for the benefit of macro expansion.
Specifically, require imports each named module and then makes each requested macro
available in the current module.
The following are all equivalent ways to call a macro named foo in the module mymodule:
(require mymodule)
(mymodule.foo 1)
(require [mymodule :as M])
(M.foo 1)
(require [mymodule [foo]])
(foo 1)
(require [mymodule [*]])
(foo 1)
(require [mymodule [foo :as bar]])
(bar 1)
Macros that call macros
One aspect of require that may be surprising is what happens when one macro's expansion
calls another macro. Suppose mymodule.hy looks like this:
(defmacro repexpr [n expr]
; Evaluate the expression n times
; and collect the results in a list.
`(list (map (fn [_] ~expr) (range ~n))))
(defmacro foo [n]
`(repexpr ~n (input "Gimme some input: ")))
And then, in your main program, you write:
(require [mymodule [foo]])
(print (mymodule.foo 3))
Running this raises NameError: name 'repexpr' is not defined, even though writing (print
(foo 3)) in mymodule works fine. The trouble is that your main program doesn't have the
macro repexpr available, since it wasn't imported (and imported under exactly that name,
as opposed to a qualified name). You could do (require [mymodule [*]]) or (require
[mymodule [foo repexpr]]), but a less error-prone approach is to change the definition of
foo to require whatever sub-macros it needs:
(defmacro foo [n]
`(do
(require mymodule)
(mymodule.repexpr ~n (input "Gimme some input: "))))
It's wise to use (require mymodule) here rather than (require [mymodule [repexpr]]) to
avoid accidentally shadowing a function named repexpr in the main program.
Qualified macro names
Note that in the current implementation, there's a trick in qualified macro names, like
mymodule.foo and M.foo in the above example. These names aren't actually attributes of
module objects; they're just identifiers with periods in them. In fact, mymodule and M
aren't defined by these require forms, even at compile-time. None of this will hurt you
unless try to do introspection of the current module's set of defined macros, which isn't
really supported anyway.
rest
rest takes the given collection and returns an iterable of all but the first element.
=> (list (rest (range 10)))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
Given an empty collection, it returns an empty iterable.
=> (list (rest []))
[]
return
return compiles to a return statement. It exits the current function, returning its
argument if provided with one or None if not.
=> (defn f [x] (for [n (range 10)] (when (> n x) (return n))))
=> (f 3.9)
4
Note that in Hy, return is necessary much less often than in Python, since the last form
of a function is returned automatically. Hence, an explicit return is only necessary to
exit a function early.
=> (defn f [x] (setv y 10) (+ x y))
=> (f 4)
14
To get Python's behavior of returning None when execution reaches the end of a function,
put None there yourself.
=> (defn f [x] (setv y 10) (+ x y) None)
=> (print (f 4))
None
sfor
sfor creates a set comprehension. (sfor CLAUSES VALUE) is equivalent to (set (lfor CLAUSES
VALUE)). See lfor.
cut
cut can be used to take a subset of a list and create a new list from it. The form takes
at least one parameter specifying the list to cut. Two optional parameters can be used to
give the start and end position of the subset. If they are not supplied, the default value
of None will be used instead. The third optional parameter is used to control step between
the elements.
cut follows the same rules as its Python counterpart. Negative indices are counted
starting from the end of the list. Some example usage:
=> (setv collection (range 10))
=> (cut collection)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (cut collection 5)
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (cut collection 2 8)
[2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
=> (cut collection 2 8 2)
[2, 4, 6]
=> (cut collection -4 -2)
[6, 7]
raise
The raise form can be used to raise an Exception at runtime. Example usage:
(raise)
; re-rase the last exception
(raise IOError)
; raise an IOError
(raise (IOError "foobar"))
; raise an IOError("foobar")
raise can accept a single argument (an Exception class or instance) or no arguments to
re-raise the last Exception.
try
The try form is used to catch exceptions (except) and run cleanup actions (finally).
(try
(error-prone-function)
(another-error-prone-function)
(except [ZeroDivisionError]
(print "Division by zero"))
(except [[IndexError KeyboardInterrupt]]
(print "Index error or Ctrl-C"))
(except [e ValueError]
(print "ValueError:" (repr e)))
(except [e [TabError PermissionError ReferenceError]]
(print "Some sort of error:" (repr e)))
(else
(print "No errors"))
(finally
(print "All done")))
The first argument of try is its body, which can contain one or more forms. Then comes
any number of except clauses, then optionally an else clause, then optionally a finally
clause. If an exception is raised with a matching except clause during the execution of
the body, that except clause will be executed. If no exceptions are raised, the else
clause is executed. The finally clause will be executed last regardless of whether an
exception was raised.
The return value of try is the last form of the except clause that was run, or the last
form of else if no exception was raised, or the try body if there is no else clause.
unless
The unless macro is a shorthand for writing an if statement that checks if the given
conditional is False. The following shows the expansion of this macro.
(unless conditional statement)
(if conditional
None
(do statement))
unpack-iterable, unpack-mapping
(Also known as the splat operator, star operator, argument expansion, argument explosion,
argument gathering, and varargs, among others...)
unpack-iterable and unpack-mapping allow an iterable or mapping object (respectively) to
provide positional or keywords arguments (respectively) to a function.
=> (defn f [a b c d] [a b c d])
=> (f (unpack-iterable [1 2]) (unpack-mapping {"c" 3 "d" 4}))
[1, 2, 3, 4]
unpack-iterable is usually written with the shorthand #*, and unpack-mapping with #**.
=> (f #* [1 2] #** {"c" 3 "d" 4})
[1, 2, 3, 4]
Unpacking is allowed in a variety of contexts, and you can unpack more than once in one
expression (PEP 3132, PEP 448).
=> (setv [a #* b c] [1 2 3 4 5])
=> [a b c]
[1, [2, 3, 4], 5]
=> [#* [1 2] #* [3 4]]
[1, 2, 3, 4]
=> {#** {1 2} #** {3 4}}
{1: 2, 3: 4}
=> (f #* [1] #* [2] #** {"c" 3} #** {"d" 4})
[1, 2, 3, 4]
unquote
Within a quasiquoted form, unquote forces evaluation of a symbol. unquote is aliased to
the tilde (~) symbol.
=> (setv nickname "Cuddles")
=> (quasiquote (= nickname (unquote nickname)))
HyExpression([
HySymbol('='),
HySymbol('nickname'),
'Cuddles'])
=> `(= nickname ~nickname)
HyExpression([
HySymbol('='),
HySymbol('nickname'),
'Cuddles'])
unquote-splice
unquote-splice forces the evaluation of a symbol within a quasiquoted form, much like
unquote. unquote-splice can be used when the symbol being unquoted contains an iterable
value, as it "splices" that iterable into the quasiquoted form. unquote-splice can also be
used when the value evaluates to a false value such as None, False, or 0, in which case
the value is treated as an empty list and thus does not splice anything into the form.
unquote-splice is aliased to the ~@ syntax.
=> (setv nums [1 2 3 4])
=> (quasiquote (+ (unquote-splice nums)))
HyExpression([
HySymbol('+'),
1,
2,
3,
4])
=> `(+ ~@nums)
HyExpression([
HySymbol('+'),
1,
2,
3,
4])
=> `[1 2 ~@(if (neg? (first nums)) nums)]
HyList([
HyInteger(1),
HyInteger(2)])
Here, the last example evaluates to ('+' 1 2), since the condition (< (nth nums 0) 0) is
False, which makes this if expression evaluate to None, because the if expression here
does not have an else clause. unquote-splice then evaluates this as an empty value,
leaving no effects on the list it is enclosed in, therefore resulting in ('+' 1 2).
when
when is similar to unless, except it tests when the given conditional is True. It is not
possible to have an else block in a when macro. The following shows the expansion of the
macro.
(when conditional statement)
(if conditional (do statement))
while
while compiles to a while statement. It is used to execute a set of forms as long as a
condition is met. The first argument to while is the condition, and any remaining forms
constitute the body. The following example will output "Hello world!" to the screen
indefinitely:
(while True (print "Hello world!"))
The last form of a while loop can be an else clause, which is executed after the loop
terminates, unless it exited abnormally (e.g., with break). So,
(setv x 2)
(while x
(print "In body")
(-= x 1)
(else
(print "In else")))
prints
In body
In body
In else
If you put a break or continue form in the condition of a while loop, it will apply to the
very same loop rather than an outer loop, even if execution is yet to ever reach the loop
body. (Hy compiles a while loop with statements in its condition by rewriting it so that
the condition is actually in the body.) So,
(for [x [1]]
(print "In outer loop")
(while
(do
(print "In condition")
(break)
(print "This won't print.")
True)
(print "This won't print, either."))
(print "At end of outer loop"))
prints
In outer loop
In condition
At end of outer loop
with
with is used to wrap the execution of a block within a context manager. The context
manager can then set up the local system and tear it down in a controlled manner. The
archetypical example of using with is when processing files. with can bind context to an
argument or ignore it completely, as shown below:
(with [arg (expr)] block)
(with [(expr)] block)
(with [arg (expr) (expr)] block)
The following example will open the NEWS file and print its content to the screen. The
file is automatically closed after it has been processed.
(with [f (open "NEWS")] (print (.read f)))
with returns the value of its last form, unless it suppresses an exception (because the
context manager's __exit__ method returned true), in which case it returns None. So, the
previous example could also be written
(print (with [f (open "NEWS")] (.read f)))
with/a
with/a behaves like with, but is used to wrap the execution of a block within an
asynchronous context manager. The context manager can then set up the local system and
tear it down in a controlled manner asynchronously.
(with/a [arg (expr)] block)
(with/a [(expr)] block)
(with/a [arg (expr) (expr)] block)
with/a returns the value of its last form, unless it suppresses an exception (because the
context manager's __aexit__ method returned true), in which case it returns None.
with-decorator
with-decorator is used to wrap a function with another. The function performing the
decoration should accept a single value: the function being decorated, and return a new
function. with-decorator takes a minimum of two parameters: the function performing
decoration and the function being decorated. More than one decorator function can be
applied; they will be applied in order from outermost to innermost, ie. the first
decorator will be the outermost one, and so on. Decorators with arguments are called just
like a function call.
(with-decorator decorator-fun
(defn some-function [] ...)
(with-decorator decorator1 decorator2 ...
(defn some-function [] ...)
(with-decorator (decorator arg) ..
(defn some-function [] ...)
In the following example, inc-decorator is used to decorate the function addition with a
function that takes two parameters and calls the decorated function with values that are
incremented by 1. When the decorated addition is called with values 1 and 1, the end
result will be 4 (1+1 + 1+1).
=> (defn inc-decorator [func]
... (fn [value-1 value-2] (func (+ value-1 1) (+ value-2 1))))
=> (defn inc2-decorator [func]
... (fn [value-1 value-2] (func (+ value-1 2) (+ value-2 2))))
=> (with-decorator inc-decorator (defn addition [a b] (+ a b)))
=> (addition 1 1)
4
=> (with-decorator inc2-decorator inc-decorator
... (defn addition [a b] (+ a b)))
=> (addition 1 1)
8
#@
New in version 0.12.0.
The tag macro #@ can be used as a shorthand for with-decorator. With #@, the previous
example becomes:
=> #@(inc-decorator (defn addition [a b] (+ a b)))
=> (addition 1 1)
4
=> #@(inc2-decorator inc-decorator
... (defn addition [a b] (+ a b)))
=> (addition 1 1)
8
with-gensyms
New in version 0.9.12.
with-gensym is used to generate a set of gensym for use in a macro. The following code:
(with-gensyms [a b c]
...)
expands to:
(do
(setv a (gensym)
b (gensym)
c (gensym))
...)
SEE ALSO:
Section using-gensym
xor
New in version 0.12.0.
xor performs the logical operation of exclusive OR. It takes two arguments. If exactly
one argument is true, that argument is returned. If neither is true, the second argument
is returned (which will necessarily be false). Otherwise, when both arguments are true,
the value False is returned.
=> [(xor 0 0) (xor 0 1) (xor 1 0) (xor 1 1)]
[0, 1, 1, False]
yield
yield is used to create a generator object that returns one or more values. The generator
is iterable and therefore can be used in loops, list comprehensions and other similar
constructs.
The function random-numbers shows how generators can be used to generate infinite series
without consuming infinite amount of memory.
=> (defn multiply [bases coefficients]
... (for [(, base coefficient) (zip bases coefficients)]
... (yield (* base coefficient))))
=> (multiply (range 5) (range 5))
<generator object multiply at 0x978d8ec>
=> (list (multiply (range 10) (range 10)))
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
=> (import random)
=> (defn random-numbers [low high]
... (while True (yield (.randint random low high))))
=> (list (take 15 (random-numbers 1 50)))
[7, 41, 6, 22, 32, 17, 5, 38, 18, 38, 17, 14, 23, 23, 19]
yield-from
New in version 0.9.13.
yield-from is used to call a subgenerator. This is useful if you want your coroutine to
be able to delegate its processes to another coroutine, say, if using something fancy like
asyncio.
Hy Core
Core Functions
butlast
Usage: (butlast coll)
Returns an iterator of all but the last item in coll.
=> (list (butlast (range 10)))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
=> (list (butlast [1]))
[]
=> (list (butlast []))
[]
=> (list (take 5 (butlast (count 10))))
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]
coll?
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (coll? x)
Returns True if x is iterable and not a string.
=> (coll? [1 2 3 4])
True
=> (coll? {"a" 1 "b" 2})
True
=> (coll? "abc")
False
comp
Usage: (comp f g)
Compose zero or more functions into a new function. The new function will chain the given
functions together, so ((comp g f) x) is equivalent to (g (f x)). Called without
arguments, comp returns identity.
=> (setv example (comp str +))
=> (example 1 2 3)
"6"
=> (setv simple (comp))
=> (simple "hello")
"hello"
complement
New in version 0.12.0.
Usage: (complement f)
Returns a new function that returns the same thing as f, but logically inverted. So,
((complement f) x) is equivalent to (not (f x)).
=> (setv inverse (complement identity))
=> (inverse True)
False
=> (inverse 1)
False
=> (inverse False)
True
constantly
New in version 0.12.0.
Usage (constantly 42)
Create a new function that always returns the given value, regardless of the arguments
given to it.
=> (setv answer (constantly 42))
=> (answer)
42
=> (answer 1 2 3)
42
=> (answer 1 :foo 2)
42
dec
Usage: (dec x)
Returns one less than x. Equivalent to (- x 1). Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (dec 3)
2
=> (dec 0)
-1
=> (dec 12.3)
11.3
disassemble
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (disassemble tree &optional [codegen false])
Dump the Python AST for given Hy tree to standard output. If codegen is True, the function
prints Python code instead.
=> (disassemble '(print "Hello World!"))
Module(
body=[
Expr(value=Call(func=Name(id='print'), args=[Str(s='Hello World!')], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None))])
=> (disassemble '(print "Hello World!") True)
print('Hello World!')
empty?
Usage: (empty? coll)
Returns True if coll is empty. Equivalent to (= 0 (len coll)).
=> (empty? [])
True
=> (empty? "")
True
=> (empty? (, 1 2))
False
eval
eval evaluates a quoted expression and returns the value. The optional second and third
arguments specify the dictionary of globals to use and the module name. The globals
dictionary defaults to (local) and the module name defaults to the name of the current
module. An optional fourth keyword parameter, compiler, allows one to re-use an existing
HyASTCompiler object for the compilation step.
=> (eval '(print "Hello World"))
"Hello World"
If you want to evaluate a string, use read-str to convert it to a form first:
=> (eval (read-str "(+ 1 1)"))
2
every?
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (every? pred coll)
Returns True if (pred x) is logical true for every x in coll, otherwise False. Return True
if coll is empty.
=> (every? even? [2 4 6])
True
=> (every? even? [1 3 5])
False
=> (every? even? [2 4 5])
False
=> (every? even? [])
True
float?
Usage: (float? x)
Returns True if x is a float.
=> (float? 3.2)
True
=> (float? -2)
False
fraction
Returns a Python object of type fractions.Fraction.
=> (fraction 1 2)
Fraction(1, 2)
Note that Hy has a built-in fraction literal that does the same thing:
=> 1/2
Fraction(1, 2)
even?
Usage: (even? x)
Returns True if x is even. Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (even? 2)
True
=> (even? 13)
False
=> (even? 0)
True
identity
Usage: (identity x)
Returns the argument supplied to the function.
=> (identity 4)
4
=> (list (map identity [1 2 3 4]))
[1 2 3 4]
inc
Usage: (inc x)
Returns one more than x. Equivalent to (+ x 1). Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (inc 3)
4
=> (inc 0)
1
=> (inc 12.3)
13.3
instance?
Usage: (instance? class x)
Returns True if x is an instance of class.
=> (instance? float 1.0)
True
=> (instance? int 7)
True
=> (instance? str (str "foo"))
True
=> (defclass TestClass [object])
=> (setv inst (TestClass))
=> (instance? TestClass inst)
True
integer?
Usage: (integer? x)
Returns True if x is an integer (int).
=> (integer? 3)
True
=> (integer? -2.4)
False
interleave
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (interleave seq1 seq2 ...)
Returns an iterable of the first item in each of the sequences, then the second, etc.
=> (list (interleave (range 5) (range 100 105)))
[0, 100, 1, 101, 2, 102, 3, 103, 4, 104]
=> (list (interleave (range 1000000) "abc"))
[0, 'a', 1, 'b', 2, 'c']
interpose
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (interpose item seq)
Returns an iterable of the elements of the sequence separated by the item.
=> (list (interpose "!" "abcd"))
['a', '!', 'b', '!', 'c', '!', 'd']
=> (list (interpose -1 (range 5)))
[0, -1, 1, -1, 2, -1, 3, -1, 4]
iterable?
Usage: (iterable? x)
Returns True if x is iterable. Iterable objects return a new iterator when (iter x) is
called. Contrast with iterator?.
=> ;; works for strings
=> (iterable? (str "abcde"))
True
=> ;; works for lists
=> (iterable? [1 2 3 4 5])
True
=> ;; works for tuples
=> (iterable? (, 1 2 3))
True
=> ;; works for dicts
=> (iterable? {:a 1 :b 2 :c 3})
True
=> ;; works for iterators/generators
=> (iterable? (repeat 3))
True
iterator?
Usage: (iterator? x)
Returns True if x is an iterator. Iterators are objects that return themselves as an
iterator when (iter x) is called. Contrast with iterable?.
=> ;; doesn't work for a list
=> (iterator? [1 2 3 4 5])
False
=> ;; but we can get an iter from the list
=> (iterator? (iter [1 2 3 4 5]))
True
=> ;; doesn't work for dict
=> (iterator? {:a 1 :b 2 :c 3})
False
=> ;; create an iterator from the dict
=> (iterator? (iter {:a 1 :b 2 :c 3}))
True
juxt
New in version 0.12.0.
Usage: (juxt f &rest fs)
Return a function that applies each of the supplied functions to a single set of arguments
and collects the results into a list.
=> ((juxt min max sum) (range 1 101))
[1, 100, 5050]
=> (dict (map (juxt identity ord) "abcdef"))
{'f': 102, 'd': 100, 'b': 98, 'e': 101, 'c': 99, 'a': 97}
=> ((juxt + - * /) 24 3)
[27, 21, 72, 8.0]
keyword
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (keyword "foo")
Create a keyword from the given value. Strings, numbers, and even objects with the
__name__ magic will work.
=> (keyword "foo")
HyKeyword('foo')
=> (keyword 1)
HyKeyword('foo')
keyword?
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (keyword? foo)
Check whether foo is a keyword.
=> (keyword? :foo)
True
=> (setv foo 1)
=> (keyword? foo)
False
macroexpand
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (macroexpand form)
Returns the full macro expansion of form.
=> (macroexpand '(-> (a b) (x y)))
HyExpression([
HySymbol('x'),
HyExpression([
HySymbol('a'),
HySymbol('b')]),
HySymbol('y')])
=> (macroexpand '(-> (a b) (-> (c d) (e f))))
HyExpression([
HySymbol('e'),
HyExpression([
HySymbol('c'),
HyExpression([
HySymbol('a'),
HySymbol('b')]),
HySymbol('d')]),
HySymbol('f')])
macroexpand-1
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (macroexpand-1 form)
Returns the single step macro expansion of form.
=> (macroexpand-1 '(-> (a b) (-> (c d) (e f))))
HyExpression([
HySymbol('_>'),
HyExpression([
HySymbol('a'),
HySymbol('b')]),
HyExpression([
HySymbol('c'),
HySymbol('d')]),
HyExpression([
HySymbol('e'),
HySymbol('f')])])
mangle
Usage: (mangle x)
Stringify the input and translate it according to Hy's mangling rules.
=> (mangle "foo-bar")
'foo_bar'
merge-with
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (merge-with f &rest maps)
Returns a map that consist of the rest of the maps joined onto first. If a key occurs in
more than one map, the mapping(s) from the latter (left-to-right) will be combined with
the mapping in the result by calling (f val-in-result val-in-latter).
=> (merge-with + {"a" 10 "b" 20} {"a" 1 "c" 30})
{u'a': 11L, u'c': 30L, u'b': 20L}
name
New in version 0.10.1.
Usage: (name :keyword)
Convert the given value to a string. Keyword special character will be stripped. Strings
will be used as is. Even objects with the __name__ magic will work.
=> (name :foo)
u'foo'
neg?
Usage: (neg? x)
Returns True if x is less than zero. Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (neg? -2)
True
=> (neg? 3)
False
=> (neg? 0)
False
none?
Usage: (none? x)
Returns True if x is None.
=> (none? None)
True
=> (none? 0)
False
=> (setv x None)
=> (none? x)
True
=> ;; list.append always returns None
=> (none? (.append [1 2 3] 4))
True
nth
Usage: (nth coll n &optional [default None])
Returns the n-th item in a collection, counting from 0. Return the default value, None, if
out of bounds (unless specified otherwise). Raises ValueError if n is negative.
=> (nth [1 2 4 7] 1)
2
=> (nth [1 2 4 7] 3)
7
=> (none? (nth [1 2 4 7] 5))
True
=> (nth [1 2 4 7] 5 "default")
'default'
=> (nth (take 3 (drop 2 [1 2 3 4 5 6])) 2))
5
=> (nth [1 2 4 7] -1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Indices for islice() must be None or an integer: 0 <= x <= sys.maxsize.
numeric?
Usage: (numeric? x)
Returns True if x is a numeric, as defined in Python's numbers.Number class.
=> (numeric? -2)
True
=> (numeric? 3.2)
True
=> (numeric? "foo")
False
odd?
Usage: (odd? x)
Returns True if x is odd. Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (odd? 13)
True
=> (odd? 2)
False
=> (odd? 0)
False
parse-args
Usage: (parse-args spec &optional args &kwargs parser-args)
Return arguments namespace parsed from args or sys.argv with
argparse.ArgumentParser.parse_args() according to spec.
spec should be a list of arguments which will be passed to repeated calls to
argparse.ArgumentParser.add_argument(). parser-args may be a list of keyword arguments to
pass to the argparse.ArgumentParser constructor.
=> (parse-args [["strings" :nargs "+" :help "Strings"]
["-n" "--numbers" :action "append" :type 'int :help "Numbers"]]
["a" "b" "-n" "1" "-n" "2"]
:description "Parse strings and numbers from args")
Namespace(numbers=[1, 2], strings=['a', 'b'])
partition
Usage: (partition coll [n] [step] [fillvalue])
Chunks coll into n-tuples (pairs by default).
=> (list (partition (range 10))) ; n=2
[(0, 1), (2, 3), (4, 5), (6, 7), (8, 9)]
The step defaults to n, but can be more to skip elements, or less for a sliding window
with overlap.
=> (list (partition (range 10) 2 3))
[(0, 1), (3, 4), (6, 7)]
=> (list (partition (range 5) 2 1))
[(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)]
The remainder, if any, is not included unless a fillvalue is specified.
=> (list (partition (range 10) 3))
[(0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5), (6, 7, 8)]
=> (list (partition (range 10) 3 :fillvalue "x"))
[(0, 1, 2), (3, 4, 5), (6, 7, 8), (9, 'x', 'x')]
pos?
Usage: (pos? x)
Returns True if x is greater than zero. Raises TypeError if (not (numeric? x)).
=> (pos? 3)
True
=> (pos? -2)
False
=> (pos? 0)
False
second
Usage: (second coll)
Returns the second member of coll. Equivalent to (get coll 1).
=> (second [0 1 2])
1
some
New in version 0.10.0.
Usage: (some pred coll)
Returns the first logically-true value of (pred x) for any x in coll, otherwise None.
Return None if coll is empty.
=> (some even? [2 4 6])
True
=> (none? (some even? [1 3 5]))
True
=> (none? (some identity [0 "" []]))
True
=> (some identity [0 "non-empty-string" []])
'non-empty-string'
=> (none? (some even? []))
True
list?
Usage: (list? x)
Returns True if x is a list.
=> (list? '(inc 41))
True
=> (list? '42)
False
string?
Usage: (string? x)
Returns True if x is a string (str).
=> (string? "foo")
True
=> (string? -2)
False
symbol?
Usage: (symbol? x)
Returns True if x is a symbol.
=> (symbol? 'foo)
True
=> (symbol? '[a b c])
False
tuple?
Usage: (tuple? x)
Returns True if x is a tuple.
=> (tuple? (, 42 44))
True
=> (tuple? [42 44])
False
zero?
Usage: (zero? x)
Returns True if x is zero.
=> (zero? 3)
False
=> (zero? -2)
False
=> (zero? 0)
True
Sequence Functions
Sequence functions can either create or operate on a potentially infinite sequence without
requiring the sequence be fully realized in a list or similar container. They do this by
returning a Python iterator.
We can use the canonical infinite Fibonacci number generator as an example of how to use
some of these functions.
(defn fib []
(setv a 0)
(setv b 1)
(while True
(yield a)
(setv (, a b) (, b (+ a b)))))
Note the (while True ...) loop. If we run this in the REPL,
=> (fib)
<generator object fib at 0x101e642d0>
Calling the function only returns an iterator, but does no work until we consume it.
Trying something like this is not recommend as the infinite loop will run until it
consumes all available RAM, or in this case until I killed it.
=> (list (fib))
[1] 91474 killed hy
To get the first 10 Fibonacci numbers, use take. Note that take also returns a generator,
so I create a list from it.
=> (list (take 10 (fib)))
[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34]
To get the Fibonacci number at index 9, (starting from 0):
=> (nth (fib) 9)
34
cycle
Usage: (cycle coll)
Returns an infinite iterator of the members of coll.
=> (list (take 7 (cycle [1 2 3])))
[1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1]
=> (list (take 2 (cycle [1 2 3])))
[1, 2]
distinct
Usage: (distinct coll)
Returns an iterator containing only the unique members in coll.
=> (list (distinct [ 1 2 3 4 3 5 2 ]))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
=> (list (distinct []))
[]
=> (list (distinct (iter [ 1 2 3 4 3 5 2 ])))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
drop
Usage: (drop n coll)
Returns an iterator, skipping the first n members of coll. Raises ValueError if n is
negative.
=> (list (drop 2 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[3, 4, 5]
=> (list (drop 4 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[5]
=> (list (drop 0 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
=> (list (drop 6 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[]
drop-last
Usage: (drop-last n coll)
Returns an iterator of all but the last n items in coll. Raises ValueError if n is
negative.
=> (list (drop-last 5 (range 10 20)))
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]
=> (list (drop-last 0 (range 5)))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
=> (list (drop-last 100 (range 100)))
[]
=> (list (take 5 (drop-last 100 (count 10))))
[10, 11, 12, 13, 14]
drop-while
Usage: (drop-while pred coll)
Returns an iterator, skipping members of coll until pred is False.
=> (list (drop-while even? [2 4 7 8 9]))
[7, 8, 9]
=> (list (drop-while numeric? [1 2 3 None "a"])))
[None, u'a']
=> (list (drop-while pos? [2 4 7 8 9]))
[]
filter
Usage: (filter pred coll)
Returns an iterator for all items in coll that pass the predicate pred.
See also remove.
=> (list (filter pos? [1 2 3 -4 5 -7]))
[1, 2, 3, 5]
=> (list (filter even? [1 2 3 -4 5 -7]))
[2, -4]
flatten
New in version 0.9.12.
Usage: (flatten coll)
Returns a single list of all the items in coll, by flattening all contained lists and/or
tuples.
=> (flatten [1 2 [3 4] 5])
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
=> (flatten ["foo" (, 1 2) [1 [2 3] 4] "bar"])
['foo', 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 'bar']
iterate
Usage: (iterate fn x)
Returns an iterator of x, fn(x), fn(fn(x)), etc.
=> (list (take 5 (iterate inc 5)))
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
=> (list (take 5 (iterate (fn [x] (* x x)) 5)))
[5, 25, 625, 390625, 152587890625]
read
Usage: (read &optional [from-file eof])
Reads the next Hy expression from from-file (defaulting to sys.stdin), and can take a
single byte as EOF (defaults to an empty string). Raises EOFError if from-file ends before
a complete expression can be parsed.
=> (read)
(+ 2 2)
HyExpression([
HySymbol('+'),
HyInteger(2),
HyInteger(2)])
=> (eval (read))
(+ 2 2)
4
=> (import io)
=> (setv buffer (io.StringIO "(+ 2 2)\n(- 2 1)"))
=> (eval (read :from-file buffer))
4
=> (eval (read :from-file buffer))
1
=> (with [f (open "example.hy" "w")]
... (.write f "(print 'hello)\n(print \"hyfriends!\")"))
35
=> (with [f (open "example.hy")]
... (try (while True
... (setv exp (read f))
... (print "OHY" exp)
... (eval exp))
... (except [e EOFError]
... (print "EOF!"))))
OHY HyExpression([
HySymbol('print'),
HyExpression([
HySymbol('quote'),
HySymbol('hello')])])
hello
OHY HyExpression([
HySymbol('print'),
HyString('hyfriends!')])
hyfriends!
EOF!
read-str
Usage: (read-str "string")
This is essentially a wrapper around read which reads expressions from a string:
=> (read-str "(print 1)")
HyExpression([
HySymbol('print'),
HyInteger(1)])
=> (eval (read-str "(print 1)"))
1
remove
Usage: (remove pred coll)
Returns an iterator from coll with elements that pass the predicate, pred, removed.
See also filter.
=> (list (remove odd? [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[2, 4, 6]
=> (list (remove pos? [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[]
=> (list (remove neg? [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
repeat
Usage: (repeat x)
Returns an iterator (infinite) of x.
=> (list (take 6 (repeat "s")))
[u's', u's', u's', u's', u's', u's']
repeatedly
Usage: (repeatedly fn)
Returns an iterator by calling fn repeatedly.
=> (import [random [randint]])
=> (list (take 5 (repeatedly (fn [] (randint 0 10)))))
[6, 2, 0, 6, 7]
take
Usage: (take n coll)
Returns an iterator containing the first n members of coll. Raises ValueError if n is
negative.
=> (list (take 3 [1 2 3 4 5]))
[1, 2, 3]
=> (list (take 4 (repeat "s")))
[u's', u's', u's', u's']
=> (list (take 0 (repeat "s")))
[]
take-nth
Usage: (take-nth n coll)
Returns an iterator containing every n-th member of coll.
=> (list (take-nth 2 [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1, 3, 5, 7]
=> (list (take-nth 3 [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1, 4, 7]
=> (list (take-nth 4 [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1, 5]
=> (list (take-nth 10 [1 2 3 4 5 6 7]))
[1]
take-while
Usage: (take-while pred coll)
Returns an iterator from coll as long as pred returns True.
=> (list (take-while pos? [ 1 2 3 -4 5]))
[1, 2, 3]
=> (list (take-while neg? [ -4 -3 1 2 5]))
[-4, -3]
=> (list (take-while neg? [ 1 2 3 -4 5]))
[]
unmangle
Usage: (unmangle x)
Stringify the input and return a string that would mangle to it. Note that this isn't a
one-to-one operation, and nor is mangle, so mangle and unmangle don't always round-trip.
=> (unmangle "foo_bar")
'foo-bar'
Included itertools
count cycle repeat accumulate chain compress drop-while remove group-by islice
*
map take-while tee zip-longest product permutations combinations multicombinations
All of Python's itertools are available. Some of their names have been changed:
• starmap has been changed to *map
• combinations_with_replacement has been changed to multicombinations
• groupby has been changed to group-by
• takewhile has been changed to take-while
• dropwhile has been changed to drop-while
• filterfalse has been changed to remove
Model Patterns
The module hy.model-patterns provides a library of parser combinators for parsing complex
trees of Hy models. Model patterns exist mostly to help implement the compiler, but they
can also be useful for writing macros.
A motivating example
The kind of problem that model patterns are suited for is the following. Suppose you want
to validate and extract the components of a form like:
(setv form '(try
(foo1)
(foo2)
(except [EType1]
(foo3))
(except [e EType2]
(foo4)
(foo5))
(except []
(foo6))
(finally
(foo7)
(foo8))))
You could do this with loops and indexing, but it would take a lot of code and be
error-prone. Model patterns concisely express the general form of an expression to be
matched, like what a regular expression does for text. Here's a pattern for a try form of
the above kind:
(import [funcparserlib.parser [maybe many]])
(import [hy.model-patterns [*]])
(setv parser (whole [
(sym "try")
(many (notpexpr "except" "else" "finally"))
(many (pexpr
(sym "except")
(| (brackets) (brackets FORM) (brackets SYM FORM))
(many FORM)))
(maybe (dolike "else"))
(maybe (dolike "finally"))]))
You can run the parser with (.parse parser form). The result is:
(,
['(foo1) '(foo2)]
[
'([EType1] [(foo3)])
'([e EType2] [(foo4) (foo5)])
'([] [(foo6)])]
None
'((foo7) (foo8)))
which is conveniently utilized with an assignment such as (setv [body except-clauses
else-part finally-part] result). Notice that else-part will be set to None because there
is no else clause in the original form.
Usage
Model patterns are implemented as funcparserlib parser combinators. We won't reproduce
funcparserlib's own documentation, but here are some important built-in parsers:
• (+ ...) matches its arguments in sequence.
• (| ...) matches any one of its arguments.
• (>> parser function) matches parser, then feeds the result through function to change
the value that's produced on a successful parse.
• (skip parser) matches parser, but doesn't add it to the produced value.
• (maybe parser) matches parser if possible. Otherwise, it produces the value None.
• (some function) takes a predicate function and matches a form if it satisfies the
predicate.
The best reference for Hy's parsers is the docstrings (use (help hy.model-patterns)), but
again, here are some of the more important ones:
• FORM matches anything.
• SYM matches any symbol.
• (sym "foo") or (sym ":foo") matches and discards (per skip) the named symbol or keyword.
• (brackets ...) matches the arguments in square brackets.
• (pexpr ...) matches the arguments in parentheses.
Here's how you could write a simple macro using model patterns:
(defmacro pairs [&rest args]
(import [funcparserlib.parser [many]])
(import [hy.model-patterns [whole SYM FORM]])
(setv [args] (->> args (.parse (whole [
(many (+ SYM FORM))]))))
`[~@(->> args (map (fn [x]
(, (name (get x 0)) (get x 1)))))])
(print (pairs a 1 b 2 c 3))
; => [["a" 1] ["b" 2] ["c" 3]]
A failed parse will raise funcparserlib.parser.NoParseError.
Internal Hy Documentation
NOTE:
These bits are mostly useful for folks who hack on Hy itself, but can also be used for
those delving deeper in macro programming.
Hy Models
Introduction to Hy Models
Hy models are a very thin layer on top of regular Python objects, representing Hy source
code as data. Models only add source position information, and a handful of methods to
support clean manipulation of Hy source code, for instance in macros. To achieve that
goal, Hy models are mixins of a base Python class and HyObject.
HyObject
hy.models.HyObject is the base class of Hy models. It only implements one method, replace,
which replaces the source position of the current object with the one passed as argument.
This allows us to keep track of the original position of expressions that get modified by
macros, be that in the compiler or in pure hy macros.
HyObject is not intended to be used directly to instantiate Hy models, but only as a mixin
for other classes.
Compound Models
Parenthesized and bracketed lists are parsed as compound models by the Hy parser.
Hy uses pretty-printing reprs for its compound models by default. If this is causing
issues, it can be turned off globally by setting hy.models.PRETTY to False, or temporarily
by using the hy.models.pretty context manager.
Hy also attempts to color pretty reprs and errors using colorama. These can be turned off
globally by setting hy.models.COLORED and hy.errors.COLORED, respectively, to False.
HySequence
hy.models.HySequence is the abstract base class of "iterable" Hy models, such as
HyExpression and HyList.
Adding a HySequence to another iterable object reuses the class of the left-hand-side
object, a useful behavior when you want to concatenate Hy objects in a macro, for
instance.
HySequences are (mostly) immutable: you can't add, modify, or remove elements. You can
still append to a variable containing a HySequence with += and otherwise construct new
HySequences out of old ones.
HyList
hy.models.HyList is a HySequence for bracketed [] lists, which, when used as a top-level
expression, translate to Python list literals in the compilation phase.
HyExpression
hy.models.HyExpression inherits HySequence for parenthesized () expressions. The
compilation result of those expressions depends on the first element of the list: the
compiler dispatches expressions between compiler special-forms, user-defined macros, and
regular Python function calls.
HyDict
hy.models.HyDict inherits HySequence for curly-bracketed {} expressions, which compile
down to a Python dictionary literal.
Atomic Models
In the input stream, double-quoted strings, respecting the Python notation for strings,
are parsed as a single token, which is directly parsed as a HyString.
An uninterrupted string of characters, excluding spaces, brackets, quotes, double-quotes
and comments, is parsed as an identifier.
Identifiers are resolved to atomic models during the parsing phase in the following order:
• HyInteger
• HyFloat
• HyComplex (if the atom isn't a bare j)
• HyKeyword (if the atom starts with :)
• HySymbol
HyString
hy.models.HyString represents string literals (including bracket strings), which compile
down to unicode string literals (str) in Python.
HyStrings are immutable.
Hy literal strings can span multiple lines, and are considered by the parser as a single
unit, respecting the Python escapes for unicode strings.
HyStrings have an attribute brackets that stores the custom delimiter used for a bracket
string (e.g., "==" for #[==[hello world]==] and the empty string for #[[hello world]]).
HyStrings that are not produced by bracket strings have their brackets set to None.
HyBytes
hy.models.HyBytes is like HyString, but for sequences of bytes. It inherits from bytes.
Numeric Models
hy.models.HyInteger represents integer literals, using the int type.
hy.models.HyFloat represents floating-point literals.
hy.models.HyComplex represents complex literals.
Numeric models are parsed using the corresponding Python routine, and valid numeric python
literals will be turned into their Hy counterpart.
HySymbol
hy.models.HySymbol is the model used to represent symbols in the Hy language. Like
HyString, it inherits from str (or unicode on Python 2).
Symbols are mangled when they are compiled to Python variable names.
HyKeyword
hy.models.HyKeyword represents keywords in Hy. Keywords are symbols starting with a :. See
syntax-keywords.
Hy Internal Theory
Overview
The Hy internals work by acting as a front-end to Python bytecode, so that Hy itself
compiles down to Python Bytecode, allowing an unmodified Python runtime to run Hy code,
without even noticing it.
The way we do this is by translating Hy into an internal Python AST datastructure, and
building that AST down into Python bytecode using modules from the Python standard
library, so that we don't have to duplicate all the work of the Python internals for every
single Python release.
Hy works in four stages. The following sections will cover each step of Hy from source to
runtime.
Steps 1 and 2: Tokenizing and Parsing
The first stage of compiling Hy is to lex the source into tokens that we can deal with. We
use a project called rply, which is a really nice (and fast) parser, written in a subset
of Python called rpython.
The lexing code is all defined in hy.lex.lexer. This code is mostly just defining the Hy
grammar, and all the actual hard parts are taken care of by rply -- we just define
"callbacks" for rply in hy.lex.parser, which takes the tokens generated, and returns the
Hy models.
You can think of the Hy models as the "AST" for Hy, it's what Macros operate on
(directly), and it's what the compiler uses when it compiles Hy down.
SEE ALSO:
Section Hy Models for more information on Hy models and what they mean.
Step 3: Hy Compilation to Python AST
This is where most of the magic in Hy happens. This is where we take Hy AST (the models),
and compile them into Python AST. A couple of funky things happen here to work past a few
problems in AST, and working in the compiler is some of the most important work we do
have.
The compiler is a bit complex, so don't feel bad if you don't grok it on the first shot,
it may take a bit of time to get right.
The main entry-point to the Compiler is HyASTCompiler.compile. This method is invoked, and
the only real "public" method on the class (that is to say, we don't really promise the
API beyond that method).
In fact, even internally, we don't recurse directly hardly ever, we almost always force
the Hy tree through compile, and will often do this with sub-elements of an expression
that we have. It's up to the Type-based dispatcher to properly dispatch sub-elements.
All methods that preform a compilation are marked with the @builds() decorator. You can
either pass the class of the Hy model that it compiles, or you can use a string for
expressions. I'll clear this up in a second.
First Stage Type-Dispatch
Let's start in the compile method. The first thing we do is check the Type of the thing
we're building. We look up to see if we have a method that can build the type() that we
have, and dispatch to the method that can handle it. If we don't have any methods that can
build that type, we raise an internal Exception.
For instance, if we have a HyString, we have an almost 1-to-1 mapping of Hy AST to Python
AST. The compile_string method takes the HyString, and returns an ast.Str() that's
populated with the correct line-numbers and content.
Macro-Expand
If we get a HyExpression, we'll attempt to see if this is a known Macro, and push to have
it expanded by invoking hy.macros.macroexpand, then push the result back into
HyASTCompiler.compile.
Second Stage Expression-Dispatch
The only special case is the HyExpression, since we need to create different AST depending
on the special form in question. For instance, when we hit an (if True True False), we
need to generate a ast.If, and properly compile the sub-nodes. This is where the @builds()
with a String as an argument comes in.
For the compile_expression (which is defined with an @builds(HyExpression)) will dispatch
based on the string of the first argument. If, for some reason, the first argument is not
a string, it will properly handle that case as well (most likely by raising an Exception).
If the String isn't known to Hy, it will default to create an ast.Call, which will try to
do a runtime call (in Python, something like foo()).
Issues Hit with Python AST
Python AST is great; it's what's enabled us to write such a powerful project on top of
Python without having to fight Python too hard. Like anything, we've had our fair share of
issues, and here's a short list of the common ones you might run into.
Python differentiates between Statements and Expressions.
This might not sound like a big deal -- in fact, to most Python programmers, this will
shortly become a "Well, yeah" moment.
In Python, doing something like:
print for x in range(10): pass, because print prints expressions, and for isn't an
expression, it's a control flow statement. Things like 1 + 1 are Expressions, as is lambda
x: 1 + x, but other language features, such as if, for, or while are statements.
Since they have no "value" to Python, this makes working in Hy hard, since doing something
like (print (if True True False)) is not just common, it's expected.
As a result, we reconfigure things using a Result object, where we offer up any ast.stmt
that need to get run, and a single ast.expr that can be used to get the value of whatever
was just run. Hy does this by forcing assignment to things while running.
As example, the Hy:
(print (if True True False))
Will turn into:
if True:
_temp_name_here = True
else:
_temp_name_here = False
print(_temp_name_here)
OK, that was a bit of a lie, since we actually turn that statement into:
print(True if True else False)
By forcing things into an ast.expr if we can, but the general idea holds.
Step 4: Python Bytecode Output and Runtime
After we have a Python AST tree that's complete, we can try and compile it to Python
bytecode by pushing it through eval. From here on out, we're no longer in control, and
Python is taking care of everything. This is why things like Python tracebacks, pdb and
django apps work.
Hy Macros
Using gensym for Safer Macros
When writing macros, one must be careful to avoid capturing external variables or using
variable names that might conflict with user code.
We will use an example macro nif (see
http://letoverlambda.com/index.cl/guest/chap3.html#sec_5 for a more complete description.)
nif is an example, something like a numeric if, where based on the expression, one of the
3 forms is called depending on if the expression is positive, zero or negative.
A first pass might be something like:
(defmacro nif [expr pos-form zero-form neg-form]
`(do
(setv obscure-name ~expr)
(cond [(pos? obscure-name) ~pos-form]
[(zero? obscure-name) ~zero-form]
[(neg? obscure-name) ~neg-form])))
where obscure-name is an attempt to pick some variable name as not to conflict with other
code. But of course, while well-intentioned, this is no guarantee.
The method gensym is designed to generate a new, unique symbol for just such an occasion.
A much better version of nif would be:
(defmacro nif [expr pos-form zero-form neg-form]
(setv g (gensym))
`(do
(setv ~g ~expr)
(cond [(pos? ~g) ~pos-form]
[(zero? ~g) ~zero-form]
[(neg? ~g) ~neg-form])))
This is an easy case, since there is only one symbol. But if there is a need for several
gensym's there is a second macro with-gensyms that basically expands to a setv form:
(with-gensyms [a b c]
...)
expands to:
(do
(setv a (gensym)
b (gensym)
c (gensym))
...)
so our re-written nif would look like:
(defmacro nif [expr pos-form zero-form neg-form]
(with-gensyms [g]
`(do
(setv ~g ~expr)
(cond [(pos? ~g) ~pos-form]
[(zero? ~g) ~zero-form]
[(neg? ~g) ~neg-form]))))
Finally, though we can make a new macro that does all this for us. defmacro/g! will take
all symbols that begin with g! and automatically call gensym with the remainder of the
symbol. So g!a would become (gensym "a").
Our final version of nif, built with defmacro/g! becomes:
(defmacro/g! nif [expr pos-form zero-form neg-form]
`(do
(setv ~g!res ~expr)
(cond [(pos? ~g!res) ~pos-form]
[(zero? ~g!res) ~zero-form]
[(neg? ~g!res) ~neg-form])))
Checking Macro Arguments and Raising Exceptions
Hy Compiler Built-Ins
EXTRA MODULES INDEX
These modules are considered no less stable than Hy's built-in functions and macros, but
they need to be loaded with (import ...) or (require ...).
Contents:
Anaphoric Macros
New in version 0.9.12.
The anaphoric macros module makes functional programming in Hy very concise and easy to
read.
An anaphoric macro is a type of programming macro that deliberately captures some form
supplied to the macro which may be referred to by an anaphor (an expression referring
to another). — Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaphoric_macro)
To use these macros you need to require the hy.extra.anaphoric module like so:
(require [hy.extra.anaphoric [*]])
These macros are implemented by replacing any use of the designated anaphoric symbols (it,
in most cases) with a gensym. Consequently, it's unwise to nest these macros, or to use an
affected symbol as something other than a variable name, as in (print "My favorite Stephen
King book is" 'it).
ap-if
Usage: (ap-if test-form then-form else-form)
As if, but the result of the test form is named it in the subsequent forms. As with if,
the else-clause is optional.
=> (import os)
=> (ap-if (.get os.environ "PYTHONPATH")
... (print "Your PYTHONPATH is" it))
ap-each
Usage: (ap-each xs body…)
Evaluate the body forms for each element it of xs and return None.
=> (ap-each [1 2 3] (print it))
1
2
3
ap-each-while
Usage: (ap-each-while xs pred body…)
As ap-each, but the form pred is run before the body forms on each iteration, and the loop
ends if pred is false.
=> (ap-each-while [1 2 3 4 5 6] (< it 4) (print it))
1
2
3
ap-map
Usage: (ap-map form xs)
Create a generator like map() that yields each result of form evaluated with it bound to
successive elements of xs.
=> (list (ap-map (* it 2) [1 2 3]))
[2, 4, 6]
ap-map-when
Usage: (ap-map-when predfn rep xs)
As ap-map, but the predicate function predfn (yes, that's a function, not an anaphoric
form) is applied to each it, and the anaphoric mapping form rep is only applied if the
predicate is true. Otherwise, it is yielded unchanged.
=> (list (ap-map-when odd? (* it 2) [1 2 3 4]))
[2, 2, 6, 4]
=> (list (ap-map-when even? (* it 2) [1 2 3 4]))
[1, 4, 3, 8]
ap-filter
Usage: (ap-filter form xs)
The filter() equivalent of ap-map.
=> (list (ap-filter (> (* it 2) 6) [1 2 3 4 5]))
[4, 5]
ap-reject
Usage: (ap-reject form xs)
Equivalent to (ap-filter (not form) xs).
=> (list (ap-reject (> (* it 2) 6) [1 2 3 4 5]))
[1, 2, 3]
ap-dotimes
Usage: (ap-dotimes n body…)
Equivalent to (ap-each (range n) body…).
=> (setv n [])
=> (ap-dotimes 3 (.append n it))
=> n
[0, 1, 2]
ap-first
Usage: (ap-first form xs)
Evaluate the predicate form for each element it of xs. When the predicate is true, stop
and return it. If the predicate is never true, return None.
=> (ap-first (> it 5) (range 10))
6
ap-last
Usage: (ap-last form list)
Evaluate the predicate form for every element it of xs. Return the last element for which
the predicate is true, or None if there is no such element.
=> (ap-last (> it 5) (range 10))
9
ap-reduce
Usage: (ap-reduce form xs &optional initial-value)
This macro is an anaphoric version of reduce(). It works as follows:
• Bind acc to the first element of xs, bind it to the second, and evaluate form.
• Bind acc to the result, bind it to the third value of xs, and evaluate form again.
• Bind acc to the result, and continue until xs is exhausted.
If initial-value is supplied, the process instead begins with acc set to initial-value and
it set to the first element of xs.
=> (ap-reduce (+ it acc) (range 10))
45
#%
Usage: #% expr
Makes an expression into a function with an implicit % parameter list.
A %i symbol designates the (1-based) i th parameter (such as %3). Only the maximum %i
determines the number of %i parameters--the others need not appear in the expression. %*
and %** name the &rest and &kwargs parameters, respectively.
=> (#%[%1 %6 42 [%2 %3] %* %4] 1 2 3 4 555 6 7 8)
[1, 6, 42, [2, 3], (7, 8), 4]
=> (#% %** :foo 2)
{"foo": 2}
When used on an s-expression, #% is similar to Clojure's anonymous function literals--#().
=> (setv add-10 #%(+ 10 %1))
=> (add-10 6)
16
#% determines the parameter list by the presence of a %* or %** symbol and by the maximum
%i symbol found anywhere in the expression, so nesting of #% forms is not recommended.
Reserved Names
names
Usage: (names)
This function can be used to get a list (actually, a frozenset) of the names of Hy's
built-in functions, macros, and special forms. The output also includes all Python
reserved words. All names are in unmangled form (e.g., not-in rather than not_in).
=> (import hy.extra.reserved)
=> (in "defclass" (hy.extra.reserved.names))
True
CONTRIBUTOR MODULES INDEX
These modules are experimental additions to Hy. Once deemed mature, they will be moved to
the hy.extra namespace or loaded by default.
Contents:
loop/recur
New in version 0.10.0.
The loop / recur macro gives programmers a simple way to use tail-call optimization (TCO)
in their Hy code.
A tail call is a subroutine call that happens inside another procedure as its final
action; it may produce a return value which is then immediately returned by the calling
procedure. If any call that a subroutine performs, such that it might eventually lead
to this same subroutine being called again down the call chain, is in tail position,
such a subroutine is said to be tail-recursive, which is a special case of recursion.
Tail calls are significant because they can be implemented without adding a new stack
frame to the call stack. Most of the frame of the current procedure is not needed any
more, and it can be replaced by the frame of the tail call. The program can then jump
to the called subroutine. Producing such code instead of a standard call sequence is
called tail call elimination, or tail call optimization. Tail call elimination allows
procedure calls in tail position to be implemented as efficiently as goto statements,
thus allowing efficient structured programming. — Wikipedia (‐
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_call)
Macros
loop
loop establishes a recursion point. With loop, recur rebinds the variables set in the
recursion point and sends code execution back to that recursion point. If recur is used in
a non-tail position, an exception is raised.
Usage: (loop bindings &rest body)
Example:
(require [hy.contrib.loop [loop]])
(defn factorial [n]
(loop [[i n] [acc 1]]
(if (zero? i)
acc
(recur (dec i) (* acc i)))))
(factorial 1000)
Profile
New in version 0.10.0.
The profile macros make it easier to find bottlenecks.
Macros
profile/calls
profile/calls allows you to create a call graph visualization. Note: You must have
Graphviz installed for this to work.
Usage: (profile/calls (body))
Example:
(require [hy.contrib.profile [profile/calls]])
(profile/calls (print "hey there"))
profile/cpu
profile/cpu allows you to profile a bit of code.
Usage: (profile/cpu (body))
Example:
(require [hy.contrib.profile [profile/cpu]])
(profile/cpu (print "hey there"))
hey there
<pstats.Stats instance at 0x14ff320>
2 function calls in 0.000 seconds
Random listing order was used
ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function) 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 {method 'disable' of '_lsprof.Profiler' objects}
1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 {print}
Lazy sequences
New in version 0.12.0.
The sequences module contains a few macros for declaring sequences that are evaluated only
as much as the client code requires. Unlike generators, they allow accessing the same
element multiple times. They cache calculated values, and the implementation allows for
recursive definition of sequences without resulting in recursive computation.
To use these macros, you need to require them and import some other names like so:
(require [hy.contrib.sequences [defseq seq]])
(import [hy.contrib.sequences [Sequence end-sequence]])
The simplest sequence can be defined as (seq [n] n). This defines a sequence that starts
as [0 1 2 3 ...] and continues forever. In order to define a finite sequence, you need to
call end-sequence to signal the end of the sequence:
(seq [n]
"sequence of 5 integers"
(cond [(< n 5) n]
[True (end-sequence)]))
This creates the following sequence: [0 1 2 3 4]. For such a sequence, len returns the
amount of items in the sequence and negative indexing is supported. Because both of these
require evaluating the whole sequence, calling one on an infinite sequence would take
forever (or at least until available memory has been exhausted).
Sequences can be defined recursively. For example, the Fibonacci sequence could be defined
as:
(defseq fibonacci [n]
"infinite sequence of fibonacci numbers"
(cond [(= n 0) 0]
[(= n 1) 1]
[True (+ (get fibonacci (- n 1))
(get fibonacci (- n 2)))]))
This results in the sequence [0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 ...].
seq
Usage: (seq [n] (* n n))
Creates a sequence defined in terms of n.
defseq
Usage: (defseq numbers [n] n)
Creates a sequence defined in terms of n and assigns it to a given name.
end-sequence
Usage: (seq [n] (if (< n 5) n (end-sequence)))
Signals the end of a sequence when an iterator reaches the given point of the sequence.
Internally, this is done by raising IndexError, catching that in the iterator, and raising
StopIteration.
walk
New in version 0.11.0.
Functions
walk
Usage: (walk inner outer form)
walk traverses form, an arbitrary data structure. Applies inner to each element of form,
building up a data structure of the same type. Applies outer to the result.
Example:
=> (import [hy.contrib.walk [walk]])
=> (setv a '(a b c d e f))
=> (walk ord identity a)
HyExpression([
97,
98,
99,
100,
101,
102])
=> (walk ord first a)
97
postwalk
Usage: (postwalk f form)
Performs depth-first, post-order traversal of form. Calls f on each sub-form, uses f 's
return value in place of the original.
=> (import [hy.contrib.walk [postwalk]])
=> (setv trail '([1 2 3] [4 [5 6 [7]]]))
=> (defn walking [x]
... (print "Walking:" x :sep "\n")
... x)
=> (postwalk walking trail)
Walking:
1
Walking:
2
Walking:
3
Walking:
HyExpression([
HyInteger(1),
HyInteger(2),
HyInteger(3)])
Walking:
4
Walking:
5
Walking:
6
Walking:
7
Walking:
HyExpression([
HyInteger(7)])
Walking:
HyExpression([
HyInteger(5),
HyInteger(6),
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])])
Walking:
HyExpression([
HyInteger(4),
HyList([
HyInteger(5),
HyInteger(6),
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])])])
Walking:
HyExpression([
HyList([
HyInteger(1),
HyInteger(2),
HyInteger(3)]),
HyList([
HyInteger(4),
HyList([
HyInteger(5),
HyInteger(6),
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])])])])
HyExpression([
HyList([
HyInteger(1),
HyInteger(2),
HyInteger(3)]),
HyList([
HyInteger(4),
HyList([
HyInteger(5),
HyInteger(6),
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])])])])
prewalk
Usage: (prewalk f form)
Performs depth-first, pre-order traversal of form. Calls f on each sub-form, uses f 's
return value in place of the original.
=> (import [hy.contrib.walk [prewalk]])
=> (setv trail '([1 2 3] [4 [5 6 [7]]]))
=> (defn walking [x]
... (print "Walking:" x :sep "\n")
... x)
=> (prewalk walking trail)
Walking:
HyExpression([
HyList([
HyInteger(1),
HyInteger(2),
HyInteger(3)]),
HyList([
HyInteger(4),
HyList([
HyInteger(5),
HyInteger(6),
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])])])])
Walking:
HyList([
HyInteger(1),
HyInteger(2),
HyInteger(3)])
Walking:
1
Walking:
2
Walking:
3
Walking:
HyList([
HyInteger(4),
HyList([
HyInteger(5),
HyInteger(6),
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])])])
Walking:
4
Walking:
HyList([
HyInteger(5),
HyInteger(6),
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])])
Walking:
5
Walking:
6
Walking:
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])
Walking:
7
HyExpression([
HyList([
HyInteger(1),
HyInteger(2),
HyInteger(3)]),
HyList([
HyInteger(4),
HyList([
HyInteger(5),
HyInteger(6),
HyList([
HyInteger(7)])])])])
macroexpand-all
Usage: (macroexpand-all form &optional module-name)
Recursively performs all possible macroexpansions in form, using the require context of
module-name. macroexpand-all assumes the calling module's context if unspecified.
Macros
let
let creates lexically-scoped names for local variables. A let-bound name ceases to refer
to that local outside the let form. Arguments in nested functions and bindings in nested
let forms can shadow these names.
=> (let [x 5] ; creates a new local bound to name 'x
... (print x)
... (let [x 6] ; new local and name binding that shadows 'x
... (print x))
... (print x)) ; 'x refers to the first local again
5
6
5
Basic assignments (e.g. setv, +=) will update the local variable named by a let binding,
when they assign to a let-bound name.
But assignments via import are always hoisted to normal Python scope, and likewise,
defclass will assign the class to the Python scope, even if it shares the name of a let
binding.
Use importlib.import_module and type (or whatever metaclass) instead, if you must avoid
this hoisting.
The let macro takes two parameters: a list defining variables and the body which gets
executed. variables is a vector of variable and value pairs.
Like the let* of many other Lisps, let executes the variable assignments one-by-one, in
the order written:
.. code-block:: hy
=> (let [x 5 ... y (+ x 1)] ... (print x y)) 5 6
Unlike them, however, each (let …) form uses only one namespace for all its assignments.
Thus, (let [x 1 x (fn [] x)] (x)) returns a function object, not 1 as you might expect.
It is an error to use a let-bound name in a global or nonlocal form.
Hy representations
New in version 0.13.0.
hy.contrib.hy-repr is a module containing two functions. To import them, say:
(import [hy.contrib.hy-repr [hy-repr hy-repr-register]])
To make the Hy REPL use it for output, invoke Hy like so:
$ hy --repl-output-fn=hy.contrib.hy-repr.hy-repr
hy-repr
Usage: (hy-repr x)
This function is Hy's equivalent of Python's built-in repr. It returns a string
representing the input object in Hy syntax.
=> (hy-repr [1 2 3])
'[1 2 3]'
=> (repr [1 2 3])
'[1, 2, 3]'
Like repr in Python, hy-repr can round-trip many kinds of values. Round-tripping implies
that given an object x, (eval (read-str (hy-repr x))) returns x, or at least a value
that's equal to x.
hy-repr-register
Usage: (hy-repr-register the-type fun)
hy-repr-register lets you set the function that hy-repr calls to represent a type.
=> (defclass C)
=> (hy-repr-register C (fn [x] "cuddles"))
=> (hy-repr [1 (C) 2])
'[1 cuddles 2]'
If the type of an object passed to hy-repr doesn't have a registered function, hy-repr
will search the type's method resolution order (its __mro__ attribute) for the first type
that does. If hy-repr doesn't find a candidate, it falls back on repr.
Registered functions often call hy-repr themselves. hy-repr will automatically detect
self-references, even deeply nested ones, and output "..." for them instead of calling the
usual registered function. To use a placeholder other than "...", pass a string of your
choice to the keyword argument :placeholder of hy-repr-register.
(defclass Container [object]
(defn __init__ (fn [self value]
(setv self.value value))))
(hy-repr-register Container :placeholder "HY THERE" (fn [x]
(+ "(Container " (hy-repr x.value) ")")))
(setv container (Container 5))
(setv container.value container)
(print (hy-repr container)) ; Prints "(Container HY THERE)"
HACKING ON HY
Join our Hyve!
Please come hack on Hy!
Please come hang out with us on #hy on irc.freenode.net!
Please talk about it on Twitter with the #hy hashtag!
Please blog about it!
Please don't spraypaint it on your neighbor's fence (without asking nicely)!
Hack!
Do this:
1. Create a virtual environment:
$ virtualenv venv
and activate it:
$ . venv/bin/activate
or use virtualenvwrapper to create and manage your virtual environment:
$ mkvirtualenv hy
$ workon hy
2. Get the source code:
$ git clone https://github.com/hylang/hy.git
or use your fork:
$ git clone git@github.com:<YOUR_USERNAME>/hy.git
3. Install for hacking:
$ cd hy/
$ pip install -e .
4. Install other develop-y requirements:
$ pip install -r requirements-dev.txt
5. Do awesome things; make someone shriek in delight/disgust at what you have wrought.
Test!
Tests are located in tests/. We use pytest.
To run the tests:
$ pytest
Write tests---tests are good!
Also, it is good to run the tests for all the platforms supported and for PEP 8 compliant
code. You can do so by running tox:
$ tox
Document!
Documentation is located in docs/. We use Sphinx.
To build the docs in HTML:
$ cd docs
$ make html
Write docs---docs are good! Even this doc!
Contributor Guidelines
Contributions are welcome and greatly appreciated. Every little bit helps in making Hy
better. Potential contributions include:
• Reporting and fixing bugs.
• Requesting features.
• Adding features.
• Writing tests for outstanding bugs or untested features. - You can mark tests that Hy
can't pass yet as xfail.
• Cleaning up the code.
• Improving the documentation.
• Answering questions on the IRC channel, the mailing list, or Stack Overflow.
• Evangelizing for Hy in your organization, user group, conference, or bus stop.
Issues
In order to report bugs or request features, search the issue tracker to check for a
duplicate. (If you're reporting a bug, make sure you can reproduce it with the very
latest, bleeding-edge version of Hy from the master branch on GitHub. Bugs in stable
versions of Hy are fixed on master before the fix makes it into a new stable release.) If
there aren't any duplicates, then you can make a new issue.
It's totally acceptable to create an issue when you're unsure whether something is a bug
or not. We'll help you figure it out.
Use the same issue tracker to report problems with the documentation.
Pull requests
Submit proposed changes to the code or documentation as pull requests (PRs) on GitHub. Git
can be intimidating and confusing to the uninitiated. This getting-started guide may be
helpful. However, if you're overwhelmed by Git, GitHub, or the rules below, don't sweat
it. We want to keep the barrier to contribution low, so we're happy to help you with these
finicky things or do them for you if necessary.
Deciding what to do
Issues tagged good-first-bug are expected to be relatively easy to fix, so they may be
good targets for your first PR for Hy.
If you're proposing a major change to the Hy language, or you're unsure of the proposed
change, create an issue to discuss it before you write any code. This will allow others to
give feedback on your idea, and it can avoid wasted work.
File headers
Every Python or Hy file in the source tree that is potentially copyrightable should have
the following header (but with ;; in place of # for Hy files):
# Copyright [current year] the authors.
# This file is part of Hy, which is free software licensed under the Expat
# license. See the LICENSE.
As a rule of thumb, a file can be considered potentially copyrightable if it includes at
least 10 lines that contain something other than comments or whitespace. If in doubt,
include the header.
Commit formatting
Many PRs are small enough that only one commit is necessary, but bigger ones should be
organized into logical units as separate commits. PRs should be free of merge commits and
commits that fix or revert other commits in the same PR (git rebase is your friend).
Avoid committing spurious whitespace changes.
The first line of a commit message should describe the overall change in 50 characters or
less. If you wish to add more information, separate it from the first line with a blank
line.
Testing
New features and bug fixes should be tested. If you've caused an xfail test to start
passing, remove the xfail mark. If you're testing a bug that has a GitHub issue, include a
comment with the URL of the issue.
No PR may be merged if it causes any tests to fail. You can run the test suite and check
the style of your code with make d. The byte-compiled versions of the test files can be
purged using git clean -dfx tests/. If you want to run the tests while skipping the slow
ones in test_bin.py, use pytest --ignore=tests/test_bin.py.
NEWS and AUTHORS
If you're making user-visible changes to the code, add one or more items describing it to
the NEWS file.
Finally, add yourself to the AUTHORS file (as a separate commit): you deserve it. :)
The PR itself
PRs should ask to merge a new branch that you created for the PR into hylang/hy's master
branch, and they should have as their origin the most recent commit possible.
If the PR fulfills one or more issues, then the body text of the PR (or the commit message
for any of its commits) should say "Fixes #123" or "Closes #123" for each affected issue
number. Use this exact (case-insensitive) wording, because when a PR containing such text
is merged, GitHub automatically closes the mentioned issues, which is handy. Conversely,
avoid this exact language if you want to mention an issue without closing it (because e.g.
you've partly but not entirely fixed a bug).
There are two situations in which a PR is allowed to be merged:
1. When it is approved by two members of Hy's core team other than the PR's author.
Changes to the documentation, or trivial changes to code, need only one approving
member.
2. When the PR is at least two weeks old and no member of the Hy core team has expressed
disapproval of the PR in its current state. (Exception: a PR to create a new release is
not eligible to be merged under this criterion, only the first one.)
Anybody on the Hy core team may perform the merge. Merging should create a merge commit
(don't squash unnecessarily, because that would remove separation between logically
separate commits, and don't fast-forward, because that would throw away the history of the
commits as a separate branch), which should include the PR number in the commit message.
Contributor Code of Conduct
As contributors and maintainers of this project, we pledge to respect all people who
contribute through reporting issues, posting feature requests, updating documentation,
submitting pull requests or patches, and other activities.
We are committed to making participation in this project a harassment-free experience for
everyone, regardless of level of experience, gender, gender identity and expression,
sexual orientation, disability, personal appearance, body size, race, ethnicity, age, or
religion.
Examples of unacceptable behavior by participants include the use of sexual language or
imagery, derogatory comments or personal attacks, trolling, public or private harassment,
insults, or other unprofessional conduct.
Project maintainers have the right and responsibility to remove, edit, or reject comments,
commits, code, wiki edits, issues, and other contributions that are not aligned to this
Code of Conduct. Project maintainers who do not follow the Code of Conduct may be removed
from the project team.
This code of conduct applies both within project spaces and in public spaces when an
individual is representing the project or its community.
Instances of abusive, harassing, or otherwise unacceptable behavior may be reported by
opening an issue or contacting one or more of the project maintainers.
This Code of Conduct is adapted from the Contributor Covenant, version 1.1.0, available at
http://contributor-covenant.org/version/1/1/0/.
Core Team
The core development team of Hy consists of following developers:
• Kodi B. Arfer
• Nicolas Dandrimont
• Julien Danjou
• Rob Day
• Simon Gomizelj
• Ryan Gonzalez
• Abhishek Lekshmanan
• Morten Linderud
• Matthew Odendahl
• Paul Tagliamonte
• Brandon T. Willard
COPYRIGHT
2020 the authors