Provided by: gmt-common_5.4.5+dfsg-2_all bug

NAME

       spectrum1d - Compute auto- [and cross- ] spectra from one [or two] time-series

SYNOPSIS

       spectrum1d  [  table  ]   -Ssegment_size]  [   -C[xycnpago]  ]  [   -Ddt  ] [  -L[h|m] ] [
       -N[name_stem ] ] [  -T ] [  -W ] [ -bbinary ] [ -dnodata ] [ -eregexp  ]  [  -fflags  ]  [
       -ggaps ] [ -hheaders ] [ -iflags ]

       Note: No space is allowed between the option flag and the associated arguments.

DESCRIPTION

       spectrum1d  reads  X  [and Y] values from the first [and second] columns on standard input
       [or x[y]file]. These values are  treated  as  timeseries  X(t)  [Y(t)]  sampled  at  equal
       intervals  spaced  dt  units  apart. There may be any number of lines of input. spectrum1d
       will create file[s] containing auto- [and cross- ] spectral density estimates  by  Welch's
       method  of  ensemble  averaging  of  multiple  overlapped  windows,  using  standard error
       estimates from Bendat and Piersol.

       The output files have 3 columns: f or w, p, and e. f or w is the frequency or  wavelength,
       p  is  the  spectral density estimate, and e is the one standard deviation error bar size.
       These files are named based on name_stem. If the -C option is used, up to eight files  are
       created;  otherwise only one (xpower) is written. The files (which are ASCII unless -bo is
       set) are as follows:

       name_stem.xpower
              Power spectral density of X(t). Units of X * X * dt.

       name_stem.ypower
              Power spectral density of Y(t). Units of Y * Y * dt.

       name_stem.cpower
              Power spectral density of the coherent output. Units same as ypower.

       name_stem.npower
              Power spectral density of the noise output. Units same as ypower.

       name_stem.gain
              Gain spectrum, or modulus of the transfer function. Units of (Y / X).

       name_stem.phase
              Phase spectrum, or phase of the transfer function. Units are radians.

       name_stem.admit
              Admittance spectrum, or real part of the transfer function. Units of (Y / X).

       name_stem.coh
              (Squared) coherency spectrum, or linear correlation coefficient as  a  function  of
              frequency. Dimensionless number in [0, 1]. The Signal-to-Noise-Ratio (SNR) is coh /
              (1 - coh). SNR = 1 when coh = 0.5.

       In addition, a single file with all of the above as individual columns will be written  to
       stdout (unless disabled via -T).

REQUIRED ARGUMENTS

       -Ssegment_size]
              segment_size  is a radix-2 number of samples per window for ensemble averaging. The
              smallest frequency estimated is 1.0/(segment_size  *  dt),  while  the  largest  is
              1.0/(2  *  dt). One standard error in power spectral density is approximately 1.0 /
              sqrt(n_data / segment_size), so if segment_size = 256, you need 25,600 data to  get
              a  one  standard  error  bar of 10%.  Cross-spectral error bars are larger and more
              complicated, being a function also of the coherency.

OPTIONAL ARGUMENTS

       table  One or more ASCII (or binary, see -bi) files holding X(t)  [Y(t)]  samples  in  the
              first  1  [or  2]  columns.  If  no  files are specified, spectrum1d will read from
              standard input.

       -C[xycnpago]
              Read the first two columns of input as samples of two time-series, X(t)  and  Y(t).
              Consider  Y(t)  to  be the output and X(t) the input in a linear system with noise.
              Estimate the optimum frequency response function by least squares,  such  that  the
              noise  output  is  minimized  and  the  coherent  output  and  the noise output are
              uncorrelated.  Optionally specify up to 8 letters from the set { x y c n p a g o  }
              in  any  order  to create only those output files instead of the default [all]. x =
              xpower, y = ypower, c = cpower, n = npower, p = phase, a = admit, g  =  gain,  o  =
              coh.

       -Ddt   dt Set the spacing between samples in the time-series [Default = 1].

       -L     Leave  trend  alone.  By  default,  a  linear  trend  will  be removed prior to the
              transform. Alternatively, append m to just remove the mean value or h to remove the
              mid-value.

       -N[name_stem]
              Supply  an  alternate name stem to be used for output files [Default = "spectrum"].
              If -N is given with no argument then we disable the writing  of  individual  output
              files and instead write a single table to standard output.

       -V[level] (more ...)
              Select verbosity level [c].

       -T     Disable the writing of a single composite results file to stdout.

       -W     Write Wavelength rather than frequency in column 1 of the output file[s] [Default =
              frequency, (cycles / dt)].

       -bi[ncols][t] (more ...)
              Select native binary input. [Default is 2 input columns].

       -bo[ncols][type] (more ...)
              Select native binary output. [Default is 2 output columns].

       -d[i|o]nodata (more ...)
              Replace input columns that equal nodata with NaN and do the reverse on output.

       -e[~]"pattern" | -e[~]/regexp/[i] (more ...)
              Only accept data records that match the given pattern.

       -f[i|o]colinfo (more ...)
              Specify data types of input and/or output columns.

       -g[a]x|y|d|X|Y|D|[col]z[+|-]gap[u] (more ...)
              Determine data gaps and line breaks.

       -h[i|o][n][+c][+d][+rremark][+rtitle] (more ...)
              Skip or produce header record(s).

       -icols[+l][+sscale][+ooffset][,...] (more ...)
              Select input columns and transformations (0 is first column).

       -^ or just -
              Print a short message about the syntax of the command, then exits (NOTE: on Windows
              just use -).

       -+ or just +
              Print  an  extensive  usage  (help)  message,  including  the  explanation  of  any
              module-specific option (but not the GMT common options), then exits.

       -? or no arguments
              Print a complete usage (help) message, including the explanation  of  all  options,
              then exits.

ASCII FORMAT PRECISION

       The  ASCII  output formats of numerical data are controlled by parameters in your gmt.conf
       file. Longitude and latitude are formatted according to FORMAT_GEO_OUT, absolute  time  is
       under  the control of FORMAT_DATE_OUT and FORMAT_CLOCK_OUT, whereas general floating point
       values are formatted according to FORMAT_FLOAT_OUT. Be aware that the format in effect can
       lead  to loss of precision in ASCII output, which can lead to various problems downstream.
       If you find the output is not written with enough precision, consider switching to  binary
       output (-bo if available) or specify more decimals using the FORMAT_FLOAT_OUT setting.

EXAMPLES

       Suppose data.g is gravity data in mGal, sampled every 1.5 km. To write its power spectrum,
       in mGal**2-km, to the file data.xpower, use

              gmt spectrum1d data.g -S256 -D1.5 -Ndata

       Suppose in addition to data.g you have data.t, which is topography in  meters  sampled  at
       the  same  points  as  data.g.  To  estimate  various  features  of the transfer function,
       considering data.t as input and data.g as output, use

              paste data.t data.g | gmt spectrum1d -S256 -D1.5 -Ndata -C > results.txt

TUTORIAL

       The output of spectrum1d is in units of power spectral density, and so  to  get  units  of
       data-squared  you must divide by delta_t, where delta_t is the sample spacing.  (There may
       be a factor of 2 pi somewhere, also. If you want to be sure of the normalization, you  can
       determine  a  scale  factor  from Parseval's theorem: the sum of the squares of your input
       data should equal the sum of the squares of the outputs from spectrum1d, if you are simply
       trying to get a periodogram. [See below.])

       Suppose  we simply take a data set, x(t), and compute the discrete Fourier transform (DFT)
       of the entire data set in one go. Call this X(f). Then suppose  we  form  X(f)  times  the
       complex conjugate of X(f).

       P_raw(f) = X(f) * X'(f), where the ' indicates complex conjugation.

       P_raw  is called the periodogram. The sum of the samples of the periodogram equals the sum
       of the samples of the squares of x(t), by Parseval's theorem. (If you use a DFT subroutine
       on  a  computer, usually the sum of P_raw equals the sum of x-squared, times M, where M is
       the number of samples in x(t).)

       Each estimate of X(f) is now formed by a weighted linear combination of all  of  the  x(t)
       values.  (The  weights are sometimes called "twiddle factors" in the DFT literature.)  So,
       no matter what the probability distribution  for  the  x(t)  values  is,  the  probability
       distribution  for  the  X(f)  values  approaches  [complex] Gaussian, by the Central Limit
       Theorem. This means that the probability distribution for P_raw(f) approaches  chi-squared
       with two degrees of freedom. That reduces to an exponential distribution, and the variance
       of the estimate of P_raw is proportional to the square of the mean, that is, the  expected
       value of P_raw.

       In  practice  if  we  form  P_raw,  the  estimates are hopelessly noisy. Thus P_raw is not
       useful, and we need to do some kind of smoothing or averaging to get  a  useful  estimate,
       P_useful(f).

       There  are  several  different ways to do this in the literature. One is to form P_raw and
       then smooth it. Another is to form the auto-covariance function of x(t), smooth, taper and
       shape  it,  and  then  take  the  Fourier  transform  of  the smoothed, tapered and shaped
       auto-covariance.  Another is to form a parametric model for the auto-correlation structure
       in  x(t),  then  compute the spectrum of that model. This last approach is what is done in
       what is called the "maximum entropy" or "Berg"  or  "Box-Jenkins"  or  "ARMA"  or  "ARIMA"
       methods.

       Welch's  method  is  a  tried-and-true method. In his method, you choose a segment length,
       -SN, so that estimates will be made from segments of length N. The frequency  samples  (in
       cycles  per delta_t unit) of your P_useful will then be at k /(N * delta_t), where k is an
       integer, and you will get N samples (since the spectrum is an even function of f, only N/2
       of  them  are  really  useful).  If the length of your entire data set, x(t), is M samples
       long, then the variance in your P_useful will decrease in proportion to N/M. Thus you need
       to  choose  N  <<  M  to  get  very  low noise and high confidence in P_useful. There is a
       trade-off here; see below.

       There is an additional reduction in variance in  that  Welch's  method  uses  a  Von  Hann
       spectral  window  on  each  sample of length N. This reduces side lobe leakage and has the
       effect of smoothing the (N segment) periodogram as if the X(f)  had  been  convolved  with
       [1/4, 1/2, 1/4] prior to forming P_useful. But this slightly widens the spectral bandwidth
       of each estimate, because the estimate at frequency sample k is now  a  little  correlated
       with the estimate at frequency sample k+1. (Of course this would also happen if you simply
       formed P_raw and then smoothed it.)

       Finally, Welch's method also uses overlapped processing. Since  the  Von  Hann  window  is
       large in the middle and tapers to near zero at the ends, only the middle of the segment of
       length N contributes much to its estimate. Therefore in taking the next segment  of  data,
       we  move  ahead  in  the x(t) sequence only N/2 points. In this way, the next segment gets
       large weight where the segments on either side of it will  get  little  weight,  and  vice
       versa.  This  doubles the smoothing effect and ensures that (if N << M) nearly every point
       in x(t) contributes with nearly equal weight in the final answer.

       Welch's method of spectral estimation has been widely used and widely studied. It is  very
       reliable  and  its statistical properties are well understood. It is highly recommended in
       such textbooks as "Random  Data:  Analysis  and  Measurement  Procedures"  by  Bendat  and
       Piersol.

       In  all  problems of estimating parameters from data, there is a classic trade-off between
       resolution and variance. If you want to try to squeeze more resolution out  of  your  data
       set, then you have to be willing to accept more noise in the estimates. The same trade-off
       is evident here in Welch's method. If you want to have very  low  noise  in  the  spectral
       estimates,  then  you have to choose N << M, and this means that you get only N samples of
       the spectrum, and the longest period that you can resolve is only N * delta_t.  So you see
       that  reducing  the  noise  lowers  the  number of spectral samples and lowers the longest
       period. Conversely, if you choose N approaching M, then you approach the periodogram  with
       its  very  bad statistical properties, but you get lots of samples and a large fundamental
       period.

       The other spectral estimation methods also can do a good job. Welch's method was  selected
       because  the  way  it  works,  how  one  can  code  it,  and  its  effects  on statistical
       distributions,  resolution,  side-lobe  leakage,  bias,  variance,  etc.  are  all  easily
       understood.  Some  of  the other methods (e.g. Maximum Entropy) tend to hide where some of
       these trade-offs are happening inside a "black box".

SEE ALSO

       gmt, grdfft

REFERENCES

       Bendat, J. S., and A. G. Piersol, 1986, Random Data, 2nd revised ed., John Wiley & Sons.

       Welch, P. D., 1967, The use of Fast Fourier Transform for the estimation of power spectra:
       a  method  based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms, IEEE Transactions on
       Audio and Electroacoustics, Vol AU-15, No 2.

COPYRIGHT

       2019, P. Wessel, W. H. F. Smith, R. Scharroo, J. Luis, and F. Wobbe