Provided by: dacs_1.4.40-2_amd64 
NAME
dacstoken - administer hash-based one-time passwords
SYNOPSIS
dacstoken [dacsoptions[1]] [-all] [-base num] [-counter num] [-digits num]
[-disable | -enable] [-hotp-window num] [-ignore-key-length]
[-inkeys item_type] [-issuer name] [[-key keyval] | [-key-enc enc] |
[-key-file filename] | [-key-prompt]
] [-mode otp-mode] [-nl] [-outkeys item_type] [[-pin pinval] |
[-pin-file filename] | [-pin-prompt]]
[-pin-constraints str] [-rnd] [-seed str] [-serial str] [-totp-delta num]
[-totp-drift nwindows]
[-totp-hash alg] [-totp-time secs] [-totp-timestep secs] [-vfs vfs_uri]
[op-spec] [username]
DESCRIPTION
This program is part of the DACS suite.
The dacstoken utility administers DACS accounts associated with one-time password (OTP)
generating devices (tokens) or software-based clients. Using command line options, it also
computes OTP values; token account parameters can be overridden, but accounts are not even
required.
Strong, two-factor authentication can be provided when dacs_authenticate[2] is configured
to use the local_token_authenticate[3] authentication module or when dacstoken is used as
a standalone program to validate passwords. Two kinds of one-time password algorithms are
supported: the HMAC-based one-time password mode (HOTP), based on an event counter and
specified by RFC 4226[4], and the time-based one-time password mode (TOTP), as specified
by RFC 6238[5]. Additional operational modes called OCRA (OATH Challenge-Response
Algorithms), described in RFC 6287[6], are not yet fully supported.
Note
This version of dacstoken incorporates many changes that are not backward compatible
with release 1.4.24a and earlier. Some command line flags function differently, and
the format of the account file has changed. If you have used this command in earlier
releases, please make a backup copy of your token account file and review this manual
page carefully before proceeding (note the -convert flag[7] in particular).
Important
No vendor-supplied software is required by dacstoken to supply its functionality. The
devices currently supported do not need any registration or configuration interaction
with vendors and dacstoken does not interact with vendors' servers or use any
proprietary software. Vendor-supplied software may be required to perform
initialization or configuration for other token devices, however, and dacstoken does
not provide such support for them.
Each token device generally corresponds to exactly one account that is managed by
dacstoken, although some vendors produce tokens that can support multiple accounts.
To summarize, this utility:
• creates and administers DACS accounts associated with counter-based and time-based
one-time passwords
• provides validation and testing functionality
• provides a command line authentication capability
Security
Only the DACS administrator should be able to successfully run this program from the
command line. Because DACS keys and configuration files, including the file used to
store accounts, must be restricted to the administrator, this will normally be the
case, but a careful administrator will set file permissions to deny access to all
other users.
Note
The dacs_token(8)[8] web service provides users with limited self-service
functionality to set or reset their account PIN and synchronize their token. It also
has a demonstration mode to simplify testing and evaluation.
PINs (Account Passwords)
A dacstoken account can optionally have a PIN (i.e., a password) associated with it. To
authenticate against such an account, a user must provide the one-time password produced
by the token and the PIN. The TOKEN_REQUIRES_PIN[9] configuration directive determines
whether a PIN must be provided when creating or importing an account. By default, a PIN is
required. The directive does not apply in conjunction with the -delpin flag, since only an
administrator should be able to perform that function.
A hash of the PIN is stored in the account record. The PIN is not stored. The same method
used by dacspasswd(1)[10] and dacs_passwd(8)[11] is applied, and depends on the
PASSWORD_DIGEST[12] and PASSWORD_SALT_PREFIX[13] directives in effect. If
PASSWORD_DIGEST[12] is configured, that algorithm is used, otherwise a compile-time
default (SHA-1) is used. If a user forgets the PIN, the old one cannot be recovered so it
must either be deleted or a new one must be set.
Some token devices and client software have a PIN feature. The user must enter a PIN into
the device before the device will emit a one-time password. This "device PIN" is
completely distinct from the account PIN (a server-side password) that is managed by
dacstoken, and this manual is only concerned with the dacstoken PIN. The device PIN should
always be used when possible; the dacstoken PIN is strongly recommended and is required
for two-factor authentication (unless an additional authentication factor is applied in
some other way).
Since only the administrator is allowed to run this command, no restrictions are imposed
on the length or quality of the PINs that the administrator supplies; a warning message
will be emitted, however, if the password is considered to be weak as determined by the
PASSWORD_CONSTRAINTS[14] directive.
One-Time Passwords (OTPs)
Both kinds of one-time password device compute a password value by employing a secure
keyed hash algorithm (RFC 2104[15], FIPS 198[16]). In the counter-based method, the device
and server share a secret key and a counter value which are hashed to yield a numerical
value displayed in a certain radix with a certain number of digits. Successful
authentication requires the device and server to compute matching passwords. Each time the
device produces a password, it increments its counter. When the server receives a matching
password, it increments its counter. Because it is possible for the two counters to become
unsynchronized, the server's matching algorithm will typically allow a client's password
to fall within a "window" of counter values. The time-based method is similar, the main
difference being that the current Unix time (as returned by time(3)[17], for instance) is
used to establish a "time-step window" that serves as a counter value in the computation
of the secure hash. Because the real-time clocks on the device and server may not be
sufficiently synchronized, the server's matching algorithm must also allow a client's
password to fall within some number of time-step windows for these devices.
Security
A token may be assigned a permanent secret key (sometimes called an OTP seed) by its
manufacturer or the key may be programmable. This secret key is used by the token's
password generation procedure and it is critical that it be kept private. If the token
is not programmable, the key is obtained from the vendor (for a HOTP token, typically
by providing the device's serial number and any three consecutive passwords). A record
of each mapping from serial number to secret key should be kept in a secure location.
If the secret key is programmable, as it is likely to be with a software client, it is
required to be at least 128 bits in length; a minimum of 160 bits is recommended (see
RFC 4226[4]) and by default the key is represented as a 16 (or more) character long
hexadecimal string. The minimum length requirement can be overridden by the
-ignore-key-length flag, and the algorithm used to encode the key can be specified
using the -key-enc flag. The key must be syntactically correct for the specified
encoding algorithm and should be obtained from a cryptographic-quality source of
random bits. Some clients may be capable of generating a suitable key, but you may use
dacsexpr(1)[18]:
% dacsexpr -e "random(string, 20)"
"bb2504780e8075a49bd88891b228fc7216ac18d9"
Tip
Tokens can be used for authentication purposes other than computer sign on. For
example, by providing an account number, PIN, and token value, customers can quickly
be authenticated over the phone, reducing or eliminating the need for expensive and
time-consuming security questions.
One-time password devices and applications have the following operational parameters.
These parameters determine the password sequence that is generated. Some operational
parameters may be fixed (by the relevant standard or due to the implementation), while
others may be partially or completely configurable by the user. Please refer to the
references and manufacturers' documentation for details.
base
The radix in which passwords are displayed.
counter
For HOTP mode only, the current counter value.
digits
The number of digits in each one-time password.
key
The secret key (OTP seed).
serial number
A unique identifier or name for the device.
time step size
For TOTP mode only, the width of each time interval, in seconds. The same password
will be generated within a given interval; i.e., this is the "lifetime" or validity
period of each TOTP password.
In addition to these parameters, dacstoken employs several per-account (i.e., per-device)
parameters:
accept-window
When validating a HOTP password, the maximum number of passwords to consider after the
expected password.
drift
For TOTP mode only, the number of seconds by which to adjust the server's clock
forward or backward to better synchronize it with the device. This is used to
compensate for tokens or client software whose clocks are not well synchronized with
the server's.
drift-window
For TOTP mode only, but analogous to the accept-window, the maximum number of
intervals (each of the time step size) to search forward and backward when validating
against a given password.
sync-otps
For HOTP mode only, the number of consecutive one-time passwords required to
synchronize the account with the device.
username
The name of the DACS account bound to the device.
Authentication based on one-time password devices has the following advantages:
• Each time a user authenticates, a different password will be generated (with high
probability); users cannot therefore jot down "the password" because the password is
always changing; users cannot forget their password;
• Once used, a HOTP mode password is immediately "consumed" and is unlikely to be used
again for a long time; with suitable configuration parameters, a TOTP mode password
automatically "expires" within a relatively short time interval and is unlikely to be
used again for a long time;
• If no correction for clock drift is required, a TOTP mode account can have read-only
operation;
• Because the password is unlikely to be an easily-guessed number or string, it should
be stronger than most user-selected passwords;
• A HOTP token can be the basis of a mutual ("bidirectional") authentication method; the
server shows the user his token's next password to confirm its identity (with both
parties advancing their counters), then the client shows the server the next password
to confirm his identity;
• Should a key sniffer be installed on the user's computer, a sniffed password does not
do an attacker any good unless a man-in-the-middle attack[19] is possible; given N
consecutive passwords it is still very difficult to compute password N + 1 without
knowing the secret key;
• It is more difficult for users to share an account (although users might sometimes
view this as an inconvenience);
• If a dacstoken PIN is assigned to an account and an attacker obtains the account's
token, it is still difficult for the attacker to authenticate without knowing the PIN;
• A quick and immediately effective way to disable an account is by simply seizing a
hardware token (e.g., if an employee is fired), although an account can be disabled by
this program or using the revocation list[20];
• In the case of a software client that runs on a mobile device, such as a phone or PDA,
users are already carrying the device with them; free clients are available, so there
may be no additional cost (note that mobile devices may not offer the same
tamper-resistance, durability, key secrecy, clock accuracy, etc. of a hardware token).
One-time password devices have the following potential disadvantages:
• There is a one-time expense for a hardware token (depending on the purchase volume,
you can expect to pay $10-$100 USD each), and there is the possibility of having to
replace a lost or broken token, or a token's battery (some units have a
non-replaceable battery, making them disposable after a few years);
• Initial configuration is somewhat more difficult than with other authentication
methods, and users unfamiliar with the devices will have to be instructed on their
use;
• Although they are typically quite small (e.g., 5cm x 2cm x 1cm) and can be attached to
a keychain or lanyard, or kept in a wallet, users may wince at having to carry a token
around with them;
• Users can forget to have their token with them or lose the token;
• A mobile device (with a software client) is probably a likely target for theft, more
so than a hardware token (hence the extra importance of a PIN for this device);
• Unlike a hardware token where the key is burned into inaccessible, tamper-proof
memory, the key configured into a software client is likely to be readable by its
owner, making sharing of the account possible;
• Entering a 40 character or longer seed value into a mobile device can be frustrating
and prone to error;
• Once a TOTP device generates a password, a new password cannot be generated until the
next time-step window, requiring the user to wait 30 (or possibly 60) seconds (e.g.,
if an entry error is made);
• Some devices are difficult to read in low-light conditions; presbyopic users and those
with impaired vision may have difficulty reading the display.
Accounts
The accounts managed by dacstoken are completely separate from the accounts used by
local_passwd_authenticate[21] or any other DACS authentication module.
Accounts for HOTP and TOTP devices may either be stored together or kept separate. If the
virtual filestore item type auth_hotp_token is defined, it is only used for accounts
associated with HOTP tokens. Similarly, if the virtual filestore item type auth_totp_token
is defined, it is only used for accounts associated with TOTP tokens. If either item type
is not defined, accounts are accessed through DACS's virtual filestore using item type
auth_token. It is assumed that file permissions on the account databases are such that all
access is limited to the administrator and local_token_authenticate.
If accounts for the two device types are combined, because each username for an
authentication method must be unique, if an individual has both types of token they must
be assigned different usernames. So, for example, if Auggie has one HOTP token and one
TOTP token, the former might correspond to the username auggie-hotp and the latter to
auggie-totp; the sign-on form might include a device-mode input which would allow Auggie
to simply type "auggie" in the username field and JavaScript to automatically append the
appropriate suffix based on the select device mode. An obvious disadvantage of this
configuration is that it results in two different DACS identities for the same individual;
this would have to be remembered if an access control rule needed to identify Auggie
explicitly. If both tokens should map to the same DACS identity, the Auth clause could
strip the suffix off after successful authentication, but the administrator would then
need to beware of the case of two different Auggies, each using a different device type.
Configuring both the auth_hotp_token and auth_totp_token item types (or just one of them
and auth_token) keeps the accounts separate and allows the same username to be used for
both types of devices. Auggie could therefore have an account record with the same
username for both device types. This approach requires the device mode to be specified
when an operation is requested so that the correct item type can be used; this means that
users must know which type of device they are using (perhaps by afixing a label to it).
Refer to important details regarding DACS identities[22].
The -vfs can be used to configure or reconfigure the item types.
Multiple instances of each item type can exist, provided the correct one for dacstoken to
use can be determined at run time and specified through a VFS[23] directive or -vfs flag.
Only keys that meet the minimum key length requirement (16 bytes) may be stored with
account information (e.g., with -set or -import). In other contexts, the requirement is
not enforced.
The secret key is always encrypted and converted to a base-64 representation when it is
stored in the account file by dacstoken. The virtual filestore item type auth_token_keys
identifies the encryption keys for dacstoken to use; the -inkeys and -outkeys flags
specify alternatives (see dacskey(1)[24]). If the encryption keys are lost, the secret
keys are practically unrecoverable.
Important
If an attacker discovers a secret key, generating usable passwords without possessing
the token will not be difficult. For at least some hardware tokens, the key is burned
in to the device and cannot be changed; in this case, if the key is leaked the device
should be destroyed. If a token is lost, the corresponding account should be disabled.
In the event an attacker finds a lost token or discovers a secret key, having a strong
PIN associated with the account will make it difficult for the attacker to gain
access.
Important
• This authentication method has been tested against the following OTP products:
• Authenex A-Key® 3600[25] one-time password (HOTP) hardware token;
• Feitian Technologies[26] OTP C100 and OTP C200 one-time password hardware
tokens, provided by HyperSecu Information Systems[27]; and
• Google Authenticator[28].
• The open source[29] FreeOTP Authenticator[30] by Red Hat[31], which is
available for a variety of platforms.
• OATH Token[32] software application by Archie Cobbs, which implements both
HOTP and TOTP on the iPod Touch, iPhone, and iPad[33].
• The OTP Auth[34] software application for the iPod Touch, iPhone, and iPad by
Roland Moers.
There are many other free software implementations. Other manufacturers interested
in having their products supported by DACS are welcome to contact[35] Dss.
• Photo[36]: Feitian OTP C200, iPod Touch with the OATH Token app, Authenex A-Key®
3600 (clockwise from top left)
• Although this implementation should work with similar, conformant products, only
these products are officially supported by DACS.
• Hardware tokens can be purchased directly from the vendors.
• Any problems with using tokens to authenticate through DACS are not the
responsibility of the token vendor.
Importing and Exporting OTP Accounts
Descriptions of accounts and their tokens can be loaded or dumped (refer to the -import
and -export flags). This simplifies provisioning, backup, and portability. The account
information can be written in a simple, application-specific (almost) XML format, or
Google's KeyUriFormat[37], which is understood by several OTP applications.
The -format flag (see dacsoptions[38]) can be used to select the xml format (the default)
or the uri format for export.
Note
At present, the uri format cannot be imported by dacstoken.
Security
Because imported records include the unencrypted secret keys for the OTP devices, the
exported file should be kept encrypted (e.g., using openssl) or at least have
appropriate file permissions.
Note
An official standard format for OTP device provisioning is being developed. This
format may be understood by a future version of dacstoken, or a conversion utility may
be written. The standard format is likely to be considerably more complex than the
DACS format.
XML Provisioning Format
The XML format understood by dacstoken consists of a root element ("otp_tokens"),
followed by zero or more "otp_token" elements, one per line, each with required and
optional attributes (described below). The XML declaration must be omitted. Leading
whitespace and blank lines are ignored, as are single line XML comments. Additionally,
lines having a "#" as the first non-whitespace character are ignored. Optional
attributes that are not present are assigned default values. The default digest
algorithm is SHA-1. Short attribute names are used to save space. Unrecognized
attributes, and attributes irrelevant to the device mode, are ignored. Single or
double quote characters (or both) within XML attribute values must be replaced by the
corresponding entity reference ("'" and """, respectively), as must the "<"
(less than) and "&" (ampersand) characters. A ">" (greater than) character may
optionally be replaced by a ">" sequence, but no other entity references are
recognized.
Recognized attributes are:
• b:
base
-- radix for OTP value
[Optional:
10 (default),
16, or 32]
• c:
counter
-- current counter value for HOTP, in hex if preceded
by "0x" (or "0X"), decimal otherwise
[Optional:
default is 0]
• d:
OTP device mode
-- "c" (for HOTP)
or "t" (for TOTP)
[Required]
• dn:
digest-name
-- one of the Secure Hash Algorithms
[Optional:
SHA-1 (default),
SHA224, SHA256,
SHA384, SHA512]
• dr:
clock-drift
-- clock adjustment, in seconds, for TOTP
[Optional]
• ek:
encrypted-key
-- encrypted secret key, base-64 encoded
[Required:
OTP account records only]
• en:
enabled-status
-- 1 for enabled,
0 for disabled
[Required]
• k:
plaintext-key
-- unencrypted secret key
[Required]
• lu:
last-update
-- Unix time of last record update
[Optional: default is current time]
• nd:
ndigits
-- number of digits for OTP value
[Optional:
default is 6 for HOTP,
8 for TOTP]
• p:
plaintext-PIN
-- plaintext PIN value for the account
[Required:
unless ph is present,
for import only]
• ph:
hashed-PIN
-- hashed PIN value for the account
[Optional:
generated by dacstoken
for export and OTP account files only]
• s:
serial-number
-- unique identifier string for the device
[Required]
• ts:
time-step
-- time-step value, in seconds, for TOTP
[Optional:
default is 30]
• u:
username
-- a valid DACS username associated with this account
[Required]
The following example describes two accounts that might be created using the -import
flag:
<otp_tokens>
<!-- Staff OTP tokens for DACS authentication -->
<otp_token u="ietf" d="t" en="1" s="totp-ietf "draft"" k="3132333435363738393031323334353637383930" dn="SHA1" ts="30"/>
<otp_token u="ipod-c" d="c" en="1" s="ipodc-9C841SD4203" k="19c0a3519a89b4a8034c5b9306db" dn="SHA1" c="0" nd="6" b="10"/>
</otp_tokens>
KeyUriFormat Provisioning Format
The KeyUriFormat[37] provisioning format is supported by several OTP clients, such as
FreeOTP[30] and Google Authenticator[28]. In this format, a URI describes the current
state of an account. The URI can be encoded into a QR Code[39] image (a
two-dimensional barcode), which these and other OTP clients can recognize and
conveniently and correctly import using a device's camera. Also, software such as
zbarimg, a component of the ZBar[40] suite, can scan and decode barcodes that it finds
in image files.
An account can be created by dacstoken, exported as a KeyUriFormat URI, converted to a
QR Code image, sent to a user (e.g., via email or an IM) or displayed on a secure web
page, and finally imported by a user's client software. A QR Code generator that has
been successfully used for this purpose with the iPhone is qrencode, which is
distributed with the libqrencode library[41].
Notes
• Depending on QR Code generation parameters, there is a limit to the length of
the KeyUriFormat that can be encoded. The maximum URI length is likely to be
around 2,953 characters.
• The secret query parameter (the OTP seed) is base-32 encoded[42] without
padding.
• A newline should not be encoded in the barcode.
• The -issuer flag can be used to specify the name of the token issuer.
• A QR barcode can be easily copied by an attacker for reuse.
OPTIONS
In addition to the standard dacsoptions[1], a lengthy list of command line flags are
recognized. When a username is given, default values associated with that account are
used, otherwise recommended or implementation-specific defaults are used. These default
values can usually be overridden on the command line. Some flags are only allowed with a
particular token mode (e.g., -counter, -totp-show) and their appearance implies that mode,
making the -mode flag unnecessary; other flags are mode independent (e.g., -delete,
-enable). It is an error to use a mutually incompatible flag combination. Flags that are
meaningless with the selected operation are ignored, although they still imply a mode.
Hexadecimal values are case insensitive. If a counter value is required but unspecified
(e.g., when creating an account), an initial counter value of zero is used.
The op-spec specifies the operation to be performed, together with zero or more modifier
flags. If op-spec is missing, the -list operation is performed. An op-spec is one of the
following:
-auth otp-value
This flag is like -validate[43], except:
• a username is required, from which all parameters are obtained (such as the key);
• if the account has a PIN, it must be provided;
• if the account is for a HOTP token, the counter will be updated if authentication
is successful.
An exit status of zero indicates successful authentication, while any other value
means authentication failed.
-convert filename
Load an older format (prior to release 1.4.25) token account file from filename ("-"
means to read from stdin), convert it to the newer format, and write it to stdout (as
by -export). This flag is deprecated and this capability will be removed in a future
release of DACS.
-create
Create an account for username, which must not already exist. In other respects it
works like -set[44]. When creating a new account, -serial is required and -key is
implied. If no -enable flag is provided when creating an account, -disable is implied.
If no -counter flag is provided, a default of zero is used. If one of the PIN flags is
present, the given PIN will be assigned to the account, otherwise the account will not
have a PIN (or the existing PIN will not be changed).
-current
Display the current moving factor (i.e., the counter value for HOTP or the interval
value for TOTP) and expected OTP for username. For HOTP, the counter is advanced. All
parameters are taken from the account.
-delete
Delete the account for username. The device's secret key and other operational
parameters will be lost.
-delpin
Delete the PIN, if present, on the account for username, leaving the account without a
PIN.
-export
Write information about all accounts, or only one account if username is given, to
stdout. If a mode is selected, however, only accounts having that mode will be
written. This information may be reloaded using -import or -import-replace. The output
should be stored in an encrypted form, or at the very least have its file permissions
set appropriately. For example:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -export | openssl enc -aes-256-cbc > dacstoken-exported.enc
Later, you might do something like:
% openssl enc -d -aes-256-cbc < dacstoken-exported.enc | dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -import -
-h
-help
Display a help message and exit.
-hotp-show num
Display num consecutive HOTP passwords from a given counter value and key. The
-counter flag can be used to specify an initial counter value. The key can be
specified using -key, -key-file, or -key-prompt. If a username is provided, the
initial counter value and key are obtained from the user's HOTP account, unless either
value is overridden on the command line; the account's stored counter value is not
modified. This is mainly intended for debugging purposes.
-import filename
-import-replace filename
Load account and token information from filename; if filename is "-", stdin is read.
If a mode is selected, only accounts having that mode will be read. With -import it is
an error if an imported account already exists, and processing stops; -import-replace
will replace an existing account with imported data.
-issuer name
Use the string name as the token issuer when exporting an account in KeyUriFormat
format.
-l
-list
-L
-long
If username is provided, list the corresponding account (it is an error if the account
does not exist). Otherwise, if the -serial flag is given, list the account with the
specified serial number. If neither argument is given, list all accounts having the
mode specified by the -mode flag, or if -mode is absent, all accounts. If -l
(equivalently, -list) is repeated, or with the -long flag (equivalently, -L), more
detail is displayed for each account:
• account name,.RE
• device type (mode of operation),.RE
• account status,.RE
• device serial number,.RE
• counter value (for HOTP),.RE
• clock drift value (for TOTP),.RE
• whether or not the account has a PIN (indicated by a "+"
or "-" symbol), and
• the time and date of the account's last modification..RE
Examples:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -long
bobo,hotp,disabled,"foo17",000000000000000a,-PIN,10-Sep-2014@10:57:20
auggie,totp,enabled,"c200-2009234172055",0,-PIN,20-May-2010@14:20:01
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -mode hotp -L
bobo,hotp,disabled,"foo17",000000000000000a,-PIN,10-Sep-2014@10:57:20
-rename new-username
Rename the existing account for username to be
new-username, and modify the new account using command
line arguments (as with -set[44]). As this requires two
steps that are not done atomically, if an error occurs it
is possible for the new account to be created and the old
account to still exist.
-set
The -set flag is used to modify the existing account for
username based on one or more modifier arguments (-base,
-counter, -digits, -disable or -enable, -key (or -key-file
or -key-prompt), -pin (or -pin-file or -pin-prompt), or
-serial). The mode can also be changed by specifying
-mode, but mode-specific parameters associated with the
account will be lost (e.g., the current counter value will
be deleted if a HOTP account is changed to a TOTP account)
and general parameters (such as the serial number) will be
retained unless overridden on the command line.
-sync password-list
In HOTP mode, this attempts to synchronize the server with
the token for username. The password-list is a
comma-separated list of three successive passwords
produced by the user's token (this "auto-synchronize"
function is also available through
local_token_authenticate[3]). The given sequence must
match the computed sequence exactly, given the operational
parameters in effect; e.g., leading zeroes are
significant, as is the display radix and number of OTP
digits in effect. If synchronization is successful, the
user should be able to authenticate using the next
password produced by the device. An exhaustive search
algorithm using increasing counter values is employed,
with a compile-time limit on the maximum number of
computations. The search begins at the server's currently
stored counter value, unless one is provided using
-counter. If unsuccessful, this operation could take a
long time before it terminates; the user must contact an
administrator for assistance.
In TOTP mode, attempt to determine how closely
synchronized the system clock is with the token's clock
and display the result. This information can be used to
update the user's token record to compensate for poorly
synchronized clocks, or to adjust validation parameters.
The token's key and the name of the digest algorithm are
obtained for the token record belonging to username, if it
is given; otherwise the key is prompted for and the digest
algorithm to use is either obtained from the command line
or the default. Only the first password in password-list
is used. The -totp-timestep, -digits, and -totp-base
options are effective during this operation.
-test
Perform some self-tests, then exit. A non-zero exit status
means an error occurred.
-totp-show num
Display a sequence of TOTP passwords using the parameters
currently in effect: interval size (-totp-timestep),
number of digits (-digits), and base (-base). The
account's stored parameters are not modified. This is
mainly intended for debugging purposes.
If a username is provided (it must be associated with a
TOTP device), the key and other stored parameters from the
account are used unless overridden by command line flags.
The sequence of passwords for num intervals before and
after the current time, together with the password for the
current time are printed.
If no username is given, the program prompts for the key
(which is echoed) if none has been provided, and uses
command line flags or default values for parameters. It
then emits the TOTP password for the current time each
time Return/Enter is pressed; typing EOF causes immediate
termination. If num is zero, however, the program does not
wait for user input and prints only one password.
-validate otp-value
If otp-value is the next expected one-time password,
return an exit status of zero to indicate success; any
other value indicates failure. If username is given,
parameters for validation, including the key, are obtained
from that account unless overridden on the command line.
The server's state is not changed; e.g., a HOTP counter is
not advanced. If no username is given, the -mode flag must
be used and the parameters required for that mode must be
given, including a key. For HOTP mode, a counter value
must be provided. For TOTP mode, command line parameters
are effective during this validation. dacstoken will test
whether otp-value validates against the parameters in
effect.
The following modifier flags are understood:
-all
With -set and no username, apply the changes to all
accounts. This can be used to enable or disable all
accounts, for example. The -inkeys and -outkeys flags are
honoured. If an error occurs processing stops immediately,
in which case only some accounts may have been modified.
-base num
Use num as the base (radix) when displaying an OTP. The
value of num is restricted to 10 (the default), 16, or 32.
-counter num
This is the 8-byte HOTP counter value to set, expressed as
a hex value if preceded by by "0x" (or "0X"), decimal
otherwise. Leading zeroes may be elided. This implies HOTP
mode. For token devices, it should not be possible to
reset a counter (modulo counter overflow) because that
will result in the password sequence being repeated,
assuming that the key is not changed; software
implementations might not have this restriction, however,
so beware of the security implications.
-digits num
Use num digits when displaying an OTP. The value of num is
restricted to 6, 7, 8 (the default), or 9 with base 10. It
is restricted to 6 with base 32 and is ignored with base
16 (hex output).
-disable
Disable the account for username. The
local_token_authenticate module, and -auth and -validate
flags, will not allow the user to authenticate until the
account has been enabled, although other operations may
still be performed on the account. If -enable is
subsequently used, the account will become usable for
authentication and is restored to its state at the time it
was disabled. It is not an error to disable an already
disabled account.
-enable
Enable the account for username. The
local_token_authenticate module will allow the user to
authenticate. It is not an error to enable an already
enabled account.
-hotp-window num
If the expected HOTP password does not match the given
password, try to match up to num passwords after the
expected password in the sequence. A value of zero for num
disables this search.
-ignore-key-length
Do not enforce the minimum key length requirement (in
bytes, applied to the decoded keyval string argument
specified by -key).
-inkeys item_type
For decrypting secret keys, use the store identified by
item_type, presumably configured in dacs.conf.
-key keyval
Use keyval as the secret key, expressed as a hex digit
string by default (see -key-enc).
Security
Supplying a key on the command line is not secure
because it may be visible to other processes.
-key-enc enc
The secret key, however it is read by dacstoken, has been
encoded using algorithm enc. Recognized values (case
insensitive) for enc are "hex", "base32" (RFC 4648[45]),
and "none" (plaintext). The default is "hex".
-key-file filename
Read the secret key from filename, expressed as a hex
digit string by default (see -key-enc). If filename is
"-", the key is read from stdin.
-key-prompt
Prompt for the secret key, expressed as a hex digit string
by default (see -key-enc). The input is not echoed.
-mode otp-mode
This specifies (case insensitively) the type of token (the
OTP device mode) for use with -set, -create, listing
accounts, and validation and synchronization operations.
The otp-mode may be either counter or hotp for counter
mode, or time or totp for time-based mode, case
insensitively. This flag is required when creating a new
account.
-nl
When exporting the uri format, suppress the newline. When
generating a QR barcode from the URI, a newline should not
be encoded.
-outkeys item_type
For encrypting secret keys, use the store identified by
item_type, presumably defined in dacs.conf.
-pin pinval
Use pinval as the secret PIN for the account.
Security
Supplying a PIN on the command line is not secure
because it may be visible to other processes.
-pin-constraints str
Instead of using PASSWORD_CONSTRAINTS[14], use str (having
the same syntax and semantics) to describe the
requirements for a PIN.
Note
Requirements for a PIN apply to PINs obtained via a
command line flag and to those obtained through
importing (using the "p" attribute). Requirements are
not "retroactive", however, so changing the
requirements does not affect the PINs of existing
accounts or importing accounts that were previously
exported (having a "ph" attribute).
-pin-file filename
Read the secret PIN from filename. If filename is "-", the
PIN is read from stdin.
-pin-prompt
Prompt for the secret PIN. The input is not echoed.
-rnd
Reserved for future use.
-seed str
Reserved for future use.
-serial str
The serial number, str, is a (purportedly) unique
identifier assigned to the token. This option is used with
the -set, -create, and -list flags. A serial number
identifies a specific OTP device and need not be kept
secret. The uniqueness property is enforced within an item
type storage unit; that is, serial numbers of all HOTP
devices must be unique, serial numbers of all TOTP devices
must be unique, and if accounts for the two device types
are combined, all device serial numbers must be unique.
Any printable string is accepted. If a software client is
generating passwords, you may use the device's serial
number, or choose any suitably descriptive string not
already assigned to a device.
Note
A jurisdiction that allows (or may eventually allow)
both hardware tokens and software-generating client
applications should consider adopting a formalized
naming scheme for its tokens. For example, the
administrator might append "-hw" to the vendor's
serial number to form the dacstoken serial number. For
software tokens, the administrator might create a
dacstoken serial number by appending "-sw" to the
vendor's serial number for the device.
-totp-delta num
Adjust the base time by num intervals (each of the step
size number of seconds) when computing a TOTP. The num may
be negative, zero, or positive. This is used to correct
for inadequately synchronized clocks.
-totp-drift nwindows
For TOTP, use a window size of nwindows (in terms of the
interval size) for validation. If nwindows is 0, the
computed TOTP value must match the given one exactly. If
nwindows is 1, for example, dacstoken will try to match
the given TOTP value in the previous, current, and next
intervals. This allows the clocks in the system running
dacstoken (or local_token_authenticate) and token
producing device to be less well synchronized.
Security
Although it compensates for poorly synchronized
clocks, increasing the value of nwindows weakens the
system by extending the lifetime of a one-time
password.
-totp-hash alg
Use alg as the digest algorithm with TOTP. The value of
alg is restricted to SHA1 (the default), SHA256, or
SHA512. Digest name matching is described in
dacs.exprs(5)[46].
-totp-time secs
Use secs, expressed as the number of seconds since the
Unix Epoch, instead of the current date and time.
-totp-timestep secs
Use secs as the interval size when computing a TOTP. It
must be greater than zero. The default is 30 seconds.
Security
Although it compensates for poorly synchronized
clocks, increasing the value of secs weakens the
system by extending the lifetime of a one-time
password.
-vfs vfs_uri
Use vfs_uri to override the VFS[23] configuration
directive in effect. This can be used to configure or
reconfigure auth_token, auth_hotp_token, or
auth_totp_token to specify the storage method for the
accounts being acted upon.
Apart from error messages, which are printed to the standard
error, all output goes to the standard output.
Ordinarily, a dacsoption will be specified to select the
jurisdiction on behalf of which accounts are being managed.
EXAMPLES
These examples assume that the jurisdiction name to use is EXAMPLE and its federation
domain is example.com.
To use this authentication method, a DACS administrator might perform the following steps
for each OTP device assigned to a user:
1. Obtain a supported token or software client, review how it is used for authentication,
and select values for the various parameters. For a hardware device, obtain the secret
key from the vendor, or if it is programmable, select a suitable random key and
program it into the device. For the HOTP algorithm, note the initial counter value; it
might also be obtained from the vendor, although it is likely to initialized to zero.
For a programmable device or client, set the initial counter value to zero. Decide
whether a PIN will be required (see TOKEN_REQUIRES_PIN[9]).
If a software client is being used, install the software on the user's device (or have
the user do so), and configure the software.
2. Decide where the account information will be stored for DACS and, if necessary, add a
suitable VFS[23] directive to dacs.conf. The default (found in site.conf) maintains
the account information in a file named auth_tokens within each jurisdiction's default
private area:
VFS "[auth_token]dacs-kwv-fs:${Conf::FEDERATIONS_ROOT}/\
${Conf::FEDERATION_DOMAIN}/${Conf::JURISDICTION_NAME}/auth_tokens"
3. Generate keys to encrypt the account information (see Tokens and secret keys[47]) and
decide where they will be stored; for example (your user ID, group ID, path,
jurisdiction name, and federation domain may vary):
% cd /usr/local/dacs/federations_root/example.com/EXAMPLE
% dacskey -uj EXAMPLE -q auth_token_keys
% chgrp www auth_token_keys
% chmod 0640 auth_token_keys
If necessary, add a suitable VFS[23] directive to dacs.conf; the default, which is
used above, maintains the account information in a file named auth_token_keys within
each jurisdiction's default private area:
VFS "[auth_token_keys]dacs-fs:${Conf::FEDERATIONS_ROOT}/\
${Conf::FEDERATION_DOMAIN}/${Conf::JURISDICTION_NAME}/auth_token_keys"
4. If you need users to sign on through dacs_authenticate(8)[2], you must configure a
suitable Auth clause in dacs.conf, for example:
<Auth id="token">
URL "token"
STYLE "pass"
CONTROL "sufficient"
</Auth>
5. There are several ways that an administrator might proceed, depending on how much of
the effort can be done by users (e.g., whether they can be trusted, their technical
ability), how many users there are (a few, or thousands), and the level of security
required. Here is one way:
1. prepare a file containing an XML record[48] for each account to be created; if
PINs are to be used, assign a random PIN to each account;
2. use the -import[49] flag to create the accounts;
3. give the token device, username, and (if necessary) initial PIN to the user
(perhaps verifying identity), providing any necessary demonstration and
instructions;
4. have the user set or reset the PIN for the account, and ask the user to sign on
using the token to confirm correct operation.
Another method of provisioning a token-based account using a QR barcode might follow
steps similar to these for user alice:
1.
% dacstoken -format uri -export -issuer DSS -nl alice > alice.uri
% qrencode -o alice.png < alice.uri
% chmod 0600 alice.uri alice.png
The exported URI put in alice.uri might look something like this:
otpauth://totp/DSS:alice?secret=NBSWY3DPFR3W64TMMQXGCYTDMRSQ&issuer=DSS&algorithm=SHA1&digits=8&period=30
2. The image file alice.png is then sent to Alice over a sufficiently secure channel,
after which alice.png and alice.uri may be deleted.
3. Upon obtaining alice.png, Alice scans or imports the URI using her OTP client. If
the user has a web browser that has been configured to associate the otpauth URI
scheme with a suitable OTP client, it may be possible for the user to initialize
the new account using the URI directly rather than the equivalent QR barcode. Her
client should now be capable of generating a password stream that is synchronized
with her DACS token account. If HOTP is being used, several OTP values might be
provided with alice.png so that Alice can verify that her client has correctly
initialized her account.
% dacstoken -hotp-show 3 alice
0000000000000000: 070440
0000000000000001: 089277
0000000000000002: 253240
Alternatively, a web page might be provided to help users verify correct operation
and enable their account.
To create a disabled account for user bobo for a HOTP device:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -mode hotp -serial 37000752 -key-file bobo.key -create bobo
In this example, the secret key for the account (which must not already exist) is read
from the file bobo.key. New accounts are disabled by default. Use -enable to create an
enabled account.
Once an account has been created, it can be synchronized with the token. To synchronize
the HOTP token for user bobo:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -sync 433268,894121,615120 bobo
In this example, the particular token produced the three consecutive passwords 433268,
894121, and 615120. Note that the password sequence string that follows the -sync flag is
a single argument that cannot have any embedded spaces. If the key for this token is the
value 19c0a3519a89b4a8034c5b9306db, supplied as a hex string, the next password generated
by this token should be 544323 (with counter value 13). This can be verified using
-hotp-show:
% dacstoken -hotp-show 5 -counter 10 -key 19c0a3519a89b4a8034c5b9306db -ignore-key-length
000000000000000a: 433268
000000000000000b: 894121
000000000000000c: 615120
000000000000000d: 544323
000000000000000e: 002442
To enable the account for user bobo:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -enable -set bobo
To both set the PIN and enable the account for user bobo:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -enable -pin "CzAy" -set bobo
To list all accounts in detail:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -long
The -list flag is redundant because it is the default operation. The -counter, etc.
modifiers have no effect when listing.
To list only the account for bobo:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -list bobo
The exit status will be non-zero if this user does not have an account.
To display the account for the device with serial number 37000752:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -serial 37000752
The serial number, which should uniquely identify a token, is often printed on the token
or can be displayed by the token.
To set the counter value for the existing account of bobo:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -counter 9 -set bobo
This operation might be used for testing or with a software token. The -sync operation is
better suited to a hardware token.
To change the PIN for username bobo:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -pin-prompt -set bobo
The program will prompt for the new PIN.
To use an alternate account file, /secure/auth_tokens:
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -vfs "dacs-kwv-fs:/secure/auth_tokens" -list
To use new keys (making the same assumptions as earlier), add a suitable VFS directive to
dacs.conf; the default defines the item type auth_token_keys_prev as follows:
VFS "[auth_token_keys_prev]dacs-fs:${Conf::FEDERATIONS_ROOT}/\
${Conf::FEDERATION_DOMAIN}/${Conf::JURISDICTION_NAME}/auth_token_keys.prev"
% cd /usr/local/dacs/federations_root/example.com/EXAMPLE
% mv auth_token_keys auth_token_keys.prev
% dacskey -uj EXAMPLE -q auth_token_keys
% chgrp www auth_token_keys
% chmod 0640 auth_token_keys
% dacstoken -uj EXAMPLE -inkeys auth_token_keys.prev -set
The following examples outline how dacstoken might be used to generate the same output
sequence as Google Authenticator[50] (tested with Version 2.1.0.2212). Here, the key is
"mfrggzdf", which is the base-32 encoding[42] of the string "abcde". Since this an unsafe,
five-byte long key, it must be expressly allowed by using the -ignore-key_length flag.
Google Authenticator produces codes composed of six decimal digits. In HOTP
(counter-based) mode, Google Authenticator starts a new token with a counter value of one.
Using this command, dacstoken displays ten consecutive codes, starting with the code for a
counter value of one:
% dacsexpr -e 'encode(base32,"abcde")'
"MFRGGZDF"
% dacstoken -un -hotp-show 10 -digits 6 -counter 1 -key mfrggzdf -key-enc base32 -ignore-key-length
0000000000000001: 106998
0000000000000002: 421654
0000000000000003: 118157
0000000000000004: 283104
0000000000000005: 848242
0000000000000006: 615855
0000000000000007: 507768
0000000000000008: 063257
0000000000000009: 974271
000000000000000a: 178655
Similarly, for TOTP (time-based) mode, this displays the current time-based code that
should match the code produced by Google Authenticator during the same time interval (if
you try this your output code will most likely be different):
% dacstoken -un -totp-show 0 -digits 6 -key mfrggzdf -key-enc base32 -ignore-key-length
TOTP=525711 [at t=1371760542]
To generate some of the RFC 6238[5], Appendix B test vector values:
% dacstoken -un -totp-show 0 -key 12345678901234567890 -key-enc none -totp-time 59
TOTP=94287082 [at t=59]
% dacstoken -un -totp-show 0 -key 12345678901234567890123456789012 -totp-hash sha256 -key-enc none -totp-time 59
TOTP=46119246 [at t=59]
% dacstoken -un -totp-show 0 -key 1234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234 \
-totp-hash sha512 -key-enc none -totp-time 59
TOTP=90693936 [at t=59]
% dacstoken -un -totp-show 0 -key 12345678901234567890 -key-enc none -totp-time 2000000000
TOTP=69279037 [at t=2000000000]
The dacsexpr(1)[18] base-32 encoding and decoding functions[51] may be helpful.
DIAGNOSTICS
The program exits 0, or 1 if an error occurred.
BUGS
HOTP should probably be called COTP, but HOTP came before TOTP. WOTP?
Listings may only be sorted by username.
The drift adjustment for TOTP accounts is tied to the real time clocks of a particular
client/server pair. If either clock is effectively changed "too much" (e.g., by resetting
a very fast server clock or replacing an old token that had a relatively slower clock),
then a user will observe the token to suddenly stop working. Resynchronization is required
in these cases. Sharing an account file amongst two or more servers should be avoided in
general (because locks are unlikely to be visible across hosts), but also if their clocks
are not always well synchronized. It is recommended that the Network Time Protocol (RFC
1305[52]) or equivalent be used on any host that runs DACS commands or web services.
The implementation of time-based tokens was originally based on the Internet-Draft
available at the time (draft-mraihi-totp-timebased-05.txt) but is expected to conform to
RFC 6238[5], TOTP: Time-Based One-Time Password Algorithm, and interoperate with other
conformant hardware and software tokens. DACS passes both documents' test vectors.
TOTP password matching windows are symmetrical.
This functionality should probably be available through dacs_admin(8)[53] and
dacsauth(1)[54], but it's not.
Mutual authentication using tokens should be implemented.
Although release 1.4.25 introduced many improvements, some cause incompatibilities with
earlier versions of dacstoken.
The shared secret keys used to generate one-time passwords are protected on the server
side by storing them in encrypted form. But since the decryption key must be readily
accessible to DACS at run-time for token generation, a server compromise could make it
straightforward for an attacker to obtain both an account file and the symmetric key used
to encrypt/decrypt secret keys unless appropriate steps are not taken. One idea is to
involve the user-provided PIN or password in the construction or encryption of the
symmetric key. Also, all shared secret keys must be kept private on the client side.
SEE ALSO
RFC 4226[4], draft-mraihi-totp-timebased-08.txt[55], RFC 6238[5], dacs_authenticate(8)[2],
dacs_token(8)[8], dacsgrid(1)[56], dacspasswd(1)[10], opie(4)[57], Mobile One Time
Passwords[58], mod_authn_otp[59]
AUTHOR
Distributed Systems Software (www.dss.ca[60])
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our sincere thanks to Authenex, Inc.[25] and HyperSecu Information Systems, Inc.[61] for
generously providing samples of their products and technical support.
COPYING
Copyright © 2003-2018 Distributed Systems Software. See the LICENSE[62] file that
accompanies the distribution for licensing information.
NOTES
1. dacsoptions
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.1.html#dacsoptions
2. dacs_authenticate
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs_authenticate.8.html
3. local_token_authenticate
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs_authenticate.8.html#token
4. RFC 4226
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc4226.txt
5. RFC 6238
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc6238.txt
6. RFC 6287
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc6287.txt
7. -convert flag
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/#convert_flag
8. dacs_token(8)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs_token.8.html
9. TOKEN_REQUIRES_PIN
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.conf.5.html#TOKEN_REQUIRES_PIN
10. dacspasswd(1)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacspasswd.1.html
11. dacs_passwd(8)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs_passwd.8.html
12. PASSWORD_DIGEST
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.conf.5.html#PASSWORD_DIGEST
13. PASSWORD_SALT_PREFIX
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.conf.5.html#PASSWORD_SALT_PREFIX
14. PASSWORD_CONSTRAINTS
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.conf.5.html#PASSWORD_CONSTRAINTS
15. RFC 2104
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2104.txt
16. FIPS 198
http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips198/fips-198a.pdf
17. time(3)
https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=time&apropos=0&sektion=3&manpath=FreeBSD+10.3-RELEASE&format=html
18. dacsexpr(1)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacsexpr.1.html
19. man-in-the-middle attack
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack
20. revocation list
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.acls.5.html#revocation_list
21. local_passwd_authenticate
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs_authenticate.8.html#passwd
22. DACS identities
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.1.html#gloss_identity
23. VFS
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.conf.5.html#VFS
24. dacskey(1)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacskey.1.html
25. Authenex A-Key® 3600
http://www.authenex.com
26. Feitian Technologies
https://www.ftsafe.com/
27. HyperSecu Information Systems
https://www.hypersecu.com
28. Google Authenticator
https://itunes.apple.com/ca/app/google-authenticator/id388497605
29. open source
https://fedorahosted.org/freeotp
30. FreeOTP Authenticator
https://itunes.apple.com/ca/app/freeotp-authenticator/id872559395
31. Red Hat
https://www.redhat.com
32. OATH Token
https://github.com/archiecobbs/oathtoken
33. iPod Touch, iPhone, and iPad
http://itunes.apple.com/us/app/oath-token/id364017137
34. OTP Auth
https://itunes.apple.com/ca/app/otp-auth/id659877384
35. contact
http://www.dss.ca/contactus.html
36. Photo
http://dacs.dss.ca/otp-tokens2.jpg
37. KeyUriFormat
https://github.com/google/google-authenticator/wiki/Key-Uri-Format
38. dacsoptions
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.1.html#format-arg
39. QR Code
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_code
40. ZBar
http://zbar.sourceforge.net
41. libqrencode library
http://fukuchi.org/works/qrencode/
42. base-32 encoded
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base32
43. -validate
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/#validate_flag
44. -set
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/#set_flag
45. RFC 4648
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc4648.txt
46. dacs.exprs(5)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.exprs.5.html#digest
47. Tokens and secret keys
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/#security1
48. XML record
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/#user_provisioning
49. -import
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/#import_flag
50. Google Authenticator
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Authenticator
51. base-32 encoding and decoding functions
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs.exprs.5.html#encode
52. RFC 1305
http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1305.txt
53. dacs_admin(8)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacs_admin.8.html
54. dacsauth(1)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacsauth.1.html
55. draft-mraihi-totp-timebased-08.txt
https://tools.ietf.org/id/draft-mraihi-totp-timebased-08.txt
56. dacsgrid(1)
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/dacsgrid.1.html
57. opie(4)
https://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=opie&apropos=0&sektion=4&manpath=FreeBSD+10.3-RELEASE&format=html
58. Mobile One Time Passwords
http://motp.sourceforge.net
59. mod_authn_otp
https://github.com/archiecobbs/mod-authn-otp
60. www.dss.ca
http://www.dss.ca
61. HyperSecu Information Systems, Inc.
https://www.hypersecu.com/
62. LICENSE
http://dacs.dss.ca/man/../misc/LICENSE
