Provided by: libmath-planepath-perl_129-1_all bug

NAME

       Math::PlanePath -- points on a path through the 2-D plane

SYNOPSIS

        use Math::PlanePath;
        # only a base class, see the subclasses for actual operation

DESCRIPTION

       This is a base class for some mathematical paths which map an integer position $n to and
       from coordinates "$x,$y" in the 2D plane.

       The current classes include the following.  The intention is that any
       "Math::PlanePath::Something" is a PlanePath, and supporting base classes or related things
       are further down like "Math::PlanePath::Base::Xyzzy".

           SquareSpiral           four-sided spiral
           PyramidSpiral          square base pyramid
           TriangleSpiral         equilateral triangle spiral
           TriangleSpiralSkewed   equilateral skewed for compactness
           DiamondSpiral          four-sided spiral, looping faster
           PentSpiral             five-sided spiral
           PentSpiralSkewed       five-sided spiral, compact
           HexSpiral              six-sided spiral
           HexSpiralSkewed        six-sided spiral skewed for compactness
           HeptSpiralSkewed       seven-sided spiral, compact
           AnvilSpiral            anvil shape
           OctagramSpiral         eight pointed star
           KnightSpiral           an infinite knight's tour
           CretanLabyrinth        7-circuit extended infinitely

           SquareArms             four-arm square spiral
           DiamondArms            four-arm diamond spiral
           AztecDiamondRings      four-sided rings
           HexArms                six-arm hexagonal spiral
           GreekKeySpiral         square spiral with Greek key motif
           MPeaks                 "M" shape layers

           SacksSpiral            quadratic on an Archimedean spiral
           VogelFloret            seeds in a sunflower
           TheodorusSpiral        unit steps at right angles
           ArchimedeanChords      unit chords on an Archimedean spiral
           MultipleRings          concentric circles
           PixelRings             concentric rings of midpoint pixels
           FilledRings            concentric rings of pixels
           Hypot                  points by distance
           HypotOctant            first octant points by distance
           TriangularHypot        points by triangular distance
           PythagoreanTree        X^2+Y^2=Z^2 by trees

           PeanoCurve             3x3 self-similar quadrant
           PeanoDiagonals         across unit squares
           WunderlichSerpentine   transpose parts of PeanoCurve
           HilbertCurve           2x2 self-similar quadrant
           HilbertSides           along sides of unit squares
           HilbertSpiral          2x2 self-similar whole-plane
           ZOrderCurve            replicating Z shapes
           GrayCode               Gray code splits
           WunderlichMeander      3x3 "R" pattern quadrant
           BetaOmega              2x2 self-similar half-plane
           AR2W2Curve             2x2 self-similar of four parts
           KochelCurve            3x3 self-similar of two parts
           DekkingCurve           5x5 self-similar, edges
           DekkingCentres         5x5 self-similar, centres
           CincoCurve             5x5 self-similar

           ImaginaryBase          replicate in four directions
           ImaginaryHalf          half-plane replicate three directions
           CubicBase              replicate in three directions
           SquareReplicate        3x3 replicating squares
           CornerReplicate        2x2 replicating "U"
           LTiling                self-similar L shapes
           DigitGroups            digits grouped by zeros
           FibonacciWordFractal   turns by Fibonacci word bits

           Flowsnake              self-similar hexagonal tile traversal
           FlowsnakeCentres         likewise but centres of hexagons
           GosperReplicate        self-similar hexagonal tiling
           GosperIslands          concentric island rings
           GosperSide             single side or radial

           QuintetCurve           self-similar "+" traversal
           QuintetCentres           likewise but centres of squares
           QuintetReplicate       self-similar "+" tiling

           DragonCurve            paper folding
           DragonRounded          paper folding rounded corners
           DragonMidpoint         paper folding segment midpoints
           AlternatePaper         alternating direction folding
           AlternatePaperMidpoint alternating direction folding, midpoints
           TerdragonCurve         ternary dragon
           TerdragonRounded       ternary dragon rounded corners
           TerdragonMidpoint      ternary dragon segment midpoints
           AlternateTerdragon     alternate ternary dragon
           R5DragonCurve          radix-5 dragon curve
           R5DragonMidpoint       radix-5 dragon curve midpoints
           CCurve                 "C" curve
           ComplexPlus            base i+realpart
           ComplexMinus           base i-realpart, including twindragon
           ComplexRevolving       revolving base i+1

           SierpinskiCurve        self-similar right-triangles
           SierpinskiCurveStair   self-similar right-triangles, stair-step
           HIndexing              self-similar right-triangles, squared up

           KochCurve              replicating triangular notches
           KochPeaks              two replicating notches
           KochSnowflakes         concentric notched 3-sided rings
           KochSquareflakes       concentric notched 4-sided rings
           QuadricCurve           eight segment zig-zag
           QuadricIslands           rings of those zig-zags
           SierpinskiTriangle     self-similar triangle by rows
           SierpinskiArrowhead    self-similar triangle connectedly
           SierpinskiArrowheadCentres  likewise but centres of triangles

           Rows                   fixed-width rows
           Columns                fixed-height columns
           Diagonals              diagonals between X and Y axes
           DiagonalsAlternating   diagonals Y to X and back again
           DiagonalsOctant        diagonals between Y axis and X=Y centre
           Staircase              stairs down from the Y to X axes
           StaircaseAlternating   stairs Y to X and back again
           Corner                 expanding stripes around a corner
           CornerAlternating      expanding up and down around a corner
           PyramidRows            expanding stacked rows pyramid
           PyramidSides           along the sides of a 45-degree pyramid
           CellularRule           cellular automaton by rule number
           CellularRule54         cellular automaton rows pattern
           CellularRule57         cellular automaton (rule 99 mirror too)
           CellularRule190        cellular automaton (rule 246 mirror too)
           UlamWarburton          cellular automaton diamonds
           UlamWarburtonQuarter   cellular automaton quarter-plane

           DiagonalRationals      rationals X/Y by diagonals
           FactorRationals        rationals X/Y by prime factorization
           GcdRationals           rationals X/Y by rows with GCD integer
           RationalsTree          rationals X/Y by tree
           FractionsTree          fractions 0<X/Y<1 by tree
           ChanTree               rationals X/Y multi-child tree
           CfracDigits            continued fraction 0<X/Y<1 by digits
           CoprimeColumns         coprime X,Y
           DivisibleColumns       X divisible by Y
           WythoffArray           Fibonacci recurrences
           WythoffPreliminaryTriangle
           PowerArray             powers in rows
           File                   points from a disk file

       And in the separate Math-PlanePath-Toothpick distribution

           ToothpickTree          pattern of toothpicks
           ToothpickReplicate     same by replication rather than tree
           ToothpickUpist         toothpicks only growing upwards
           ToothpickSpiral        toothpicks around the origin

           LCornerTree            L-shape corner growth
           LCornerReplicate       same by replication rather than tree
           OneOfEight
           HTree                  H shapes replicated

       The paths are object oriented to allow parameters, though many have none.  See
       "examples/numbers.pl" in the Math-PlanePath sources for a sample printout of numbers from
       selected paths or all paths.

   Number Types
       The $n and "$x,$y" parameters can be either integers or floating point.  The paths are
       meant to do something sensible with fractions but expect round-off for big floating point
       exponents.

       Floating point infinities (when available) give NaN or infinite returns of some kind (some
       unspecified kind as yet).  "n_to_xy()" on negative infinity is an empty return the same as
       other negative $n.

       Floating point NaNs (when available) give NaN, infinite, or empty/undef returns, but again
       of some unspecified kind as yet.

       Most of the classes can operate on overloaded number types as inputs and give
       corresponding outputs.

           Math::BigInt        maybe perl 5.8 up for ** operator
           Math::BigRat
           Math::BigFloat
           Number::Fraction    1.14 or higher for abs()

       A few classes might truncate a bignum or a fraction to a float as yet.  In general the
       intention is to make the calculations generic enough to act on any sensible number type.
       Recent enough versions of the bignum modules might be required, perhaps "BigInt" of Perl
       5.8 or higher for "**" exponentiation operator.

       For reference, an "undef" input as $n, $x, $y, etc, is designed to provoke an
       uninitialized value warning when warnings are enabled.  Perhaps that will change, but the
       warning at least prevents bad inputs going unnoticed.

FUNCTIONS

       In the following "Foo" is one of the various subclasses, see the list above and under "SEE
       ALSO".

   Constructor
       "$path = Math::PlanePath::Foo->new (key=>value, ...)"
           Create and return a new path object.  Optional key/value parameters may control
           aspects of the object.

   Coordinate Methods
       "($x,$y) = $path->n_to_xy ($n)"
           Return X,Y coordinates of point $n on the path.  If there's no point $n then the
           return is an empty list.  For example

               my ($x,$y) = $path->n_to_xy (-123)
                 or next;   # no negatives in $path

           Paths start from "$path->n_start()" below, though some will give a position for N=0 or
           N=-0.5 too.

       "($dx,$dy) = $path->n_to_dxdy ($n)"
           Return the change in X and Y going from point $n to point "$n+1", or for paths with
           multiple arms from $n to "$n+$arms_count" (thus advancing one point along the arm of
           $n).

               +  $n+1 == $next_x,$next_y
               ^
               |
               |                    $dx = $next_x - $x
               +  $n == $x,$y       $dy = $next_y - $y

           $n can be fractional and in that case the dX,dY is from that fractional $n position to
           "$n+1" (or "$n+$arms").

                      frac $n+1 == $next_x,$next_y
                           v
               integer *---+----
                       |  /
                       | /
                       |/                 $dx = $next_x - $x
                  frac +  $n == $x,$y     $dy = $next_y - $y
                       |
               integer *

           In both cases "n_to_dxdy()" is the difference "$dx=$next_x-$x, $dy=$next_y-$y".
           Currently for most paths it's merely two "n_to_xy()" calls to calculate the two
           points, but some paths can calculate a dX,dY with a little less work.

       "$rsquared = $path->n_to_radius ($n)"
       "$rsquared = $path->n_to_rsquared ($n)"
           Return the radial distance R=sqrt(X^2+Y^2) of point $n, or the radius squared
           R^2=X^2+Y^2.  If there's no point $n then the return is "undef".

           For a few paths, these might be calculated with less work than "n_to_xy()".  For
           example the "SacksSpiral" is simply R^2=N, or the "MultipleRings" path with its
           default step=6 has an integer radius for integer $n whereas "$x,$y" are fractional
           (and so inexact).

       "$n = $path->xy_to_n ($x,$y)"
           Return the N point number at coordinates "$x,$y".  If there's nothing at "$x,$y" then
           return "undef".

               my $n = $path->xy_to_n(20,20);
               if (! defined $n) {
                 next;   # nothing at this X,Y
               }

           $x and $y can be fractional and the path classes will give an integer $n which
           contains "$x,$y" within a unit square, circle, or intended figure centred on the
           integer $n.

           For paths which completely fill the plane there's always an $n to return, but for the
           spread-out paths an "$x,$y" position may fall in between (no $n close enough) and give
           "undef".

       "@n_list = $path->xy_to_n_list ($x,$y)"
           Return a list of N point numbers at coordinates "$x,$y".  If there's nothing at
           "$x,$y" then return an empty list.

               my @n_list = $path->xy_to_n(20,20);

           Most paths have just a single N for a given X,Y but some such as "DragonCurve" and
           "TerdragonCurve" have multiple N's and this method returns all of them.

           Currently all paths have a finite number of N at a given location.  It's unspecified
           what might happen for an infinite list, if that ever occurred.

       "@n_list = $path->n_to_n_list ($n)"
           Return a list of all N point numbers at the location of $n.  This is equivalent to
           "xy_to_n_list(n_to_xy($n))".

           The return list includes $n itself.  If there is no $n in the path then return an
           empty list.

           This function is convenient for paths like "DragonCurve" or "TerdragonCurve" with
           double or triple visited points so an N may have other N at the same location.

       "$bool = $path->xy_is_visited ($x,$y)"
           Return true if "$x,$y" is visited.  This is equivalent to

               defined($path->xy_to_n($x,$y))

           Some paths cover the plane and for them "xy_is_visited()" is always true.  For others
           it might be less work to test a point than to calculate its $n.

       "$n = $path->xyxy_to_n($x1,$y1, $x2,$y2)"
       "$n = $path->xyxy_to_n_either($x1,$y1, $x2,$y2)"
       "@n_list = $path->xyxy_to_n_list($x1,$y1, $x2,$y2)"
       "@n_list = $path->xyxy_to_n_list_either($x1,$y1, $x2,$y2)"
           Return <$n> which goes from "$x1,$y1" to "$x2,$y2".  <$n> is at "$x1,$y1" and "$n+1"
           is at "$x2,$y2", or for a multi-arm path "$n+$arms", so a step along the same arm.  If
           there's no such $n then return "undef".

           The "either()" forms allow <$n> in either direction, so "$x1,$y1" to "$x2,$y2" or the
           other way "$x2,$y2" to "$x1,$y1".

           The "n_list()" forms return a list of all $n going between "$x1,$y1" and "$x2,$y2".
           For example in "Math::PlanePath::CCurve" some segments are traversed twice, once in
           each direction.

           The possible N values at each X,Y are determined the same way as for "xy_to_n()".

       "($n_lo, $n_hi) = $path->rect_to_n_range ($x1,$y1, $x2,$y2)"
           Return a range of N values covering the rectangle with corners at $x1,$y1 and $x2,$y2.
           The range is inclusive.  For example,

                my ($n_lo, $n_hi) = $path->rect_to_n_range (-5,-5, 5,5);
                foreach my $n ($n_lo .. $n_hi) {
                  my ($x, $y) = $path->n_to_xy($n) or next;
                  print "$n  $x,$y";
                }

           The return might be an over-estimate of the N range required to cover the rectangle.
           Even if the range is exact, the nature of the path may mean many points between $n_lo
           and $n_hi are outside the rectangle.  But the range is at least a lower and upper
           bound on the N values which occur in the rectangle.  Classes which guarantee an exact
           lo/hi say so in their docs.

           $n_hi is usually no more than an extra partial row, revolution, or self-similar level.
           $n_lo might be merely the starting "$path->n_start()", which is fine if the origin is
           in the desired rectangle but away from the origin could actually start higher.

           $x1,$y1 and $x2,$y2 can be fractional.  If they partly overlap some N figures then
           those N's are included in the return.

           If there's no points in the rectangle then the return can be a "crossed" range like
           "$n_lo=1", "$n_hi=0" (which makes a "foreach" do no loops).  But "rect_to_n_range()"
           may not always notice there's no points in the rectangle and might instead return an
           over-estimate.

   Descriptive Methods
       "$n = $path->n_start()"
           Return the first N in the path.  The start is usually either 0 or 1 according to what
           is most natural for the path.  Some paths have an "n_start" parameter to control the
           numbering.

           Some classes have secret dubious undocumented support for N values below this start
           (zero or negative), but "n_start()" is the intended starting point.

       "$f = $path->n_frac_discontinuity()"
           Return the fraction of N at which there may be discontinuities in the path.  For
           example if there's a jump in the coordinates between N=7.4999 and N=7.5 then the
           returned $f is 0.5.  Or $f is 0 if there's a discontinuity between 6.999 and 7.0.

           If there's no discontinuities in the path then the return is "undef".  That means for
           example fractions between N=7 to N=8 give smooth continuous X,Y values (of some kind).

           This is mainly of interest for drawing line segments between N points.  If there's
           discontinuities then the idea is to draw from say N=7.0 to N=7.499 and then another
           line from N=7.5 to N=8.

       "$arms = $path->arms_count()"
           Return the number of arms in a "multi-arm" path.

           For example in "SquareArms" this is 4 and each arm increments in turn, so the first
           arm is N=1,5,9,13,etc starting from "$path->n_start()" and incrementing by 4 each
           time.

       "$bool = $path->x_negative()"
       "$bool = $path->y_negative()"
           Return true if the path extends into negative X coordinates and/or negative Y
           coordinates respectively.

       "$bool = Math::PlanePath::Foo->class_x_negative()"
       "$bool = Math::PlanePath::Foo->class_y_negative()"
       "$bool = $path->class_x_negative()"
       "$bool = $path->class_y_negative()"
           Return true if any paths made by this class extend into negative X coordinates and/or
           negative Y coordinates, respectively.

           For some classes the X or Y extent may depend on parameter values.

       "$n = $path->x_negative_at_n()"
       "$n = $path->y_negative_at_n()"
           Return the integer N where X or Y respectively first goes negative, or return "undef"
           if it does not go negative ("x_negative()" or "y_negative()" respectively is false).

       "$x = $path->x_minimum()"
       "$y = $path->y_minimum()"
       "$x = $path->x_maximum()"
       "$y = $path->y_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum of the X or Y coordinate reached by integer N values in
           the path.  If there's no minimum or maximum then return "undef".

       "$dx = $path->dx_minimum()"
       "$dx = $path->dx_maximum()"
       "$dy = $path->dy_minimum()"
       "$dy = $path->dy_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum change dX, dY occurring in the path for integer N to
           N+1.  For a multi-arm path the change is N to N+arms so it's the change along the same
           arm.

           Various paths which go by rows have non-decreasing Y.  For them "dy_minimum()" is 0.

       "$adx = $path->absdx_minimum()"
       "$adx = $path->absdx_maximum()"
       "$ady = $path->absdy_minimum()"
       "$ady = $path->absdy_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum change abs(dX) or abs(dY) occurring in the path for
           integer N to N+1.  For a multi-arm path, the change is N to N+arms so it's the change
           along the same arm.

           "absdx_maximum()" is simply max(dXmax,-dXmin), the biggest change either positive or
           negative.  "absdy_maximum()" similarly.

           "absdx_minimum()" is 0 if dX=0 occurs anywhere in the path, which means any vertical
           step.  If X always changes then "absdx_minimum()" will be something bigger than 0.
           "absdy_minimum()" likewise 0 if any horizontal dY=0, or bigger if Y always changes.

       "$sum = $path->sumxy_minimum()"
       "$sum = $path->sumxy_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum values taken by coordinate sum X+Y reached by integer N
           values in the path.  If there's no minimum or maximum then return "undef".

           S=X+Y is an anti-diagonal.  A path which is always right and above some anti-diagonal
           has a minimum.  Some paths might be entirely left and below and so have a maximum,
           though that's unusual.

                                     \        Path always above
                                      \ |     has minimum S=X+Y
                                       \|
                                     ---o----
                 Path always below      |\
                 has maximum S=X+Y      | \
                                           \  S=X+Y

       "$sum = $path->sumabsxy_minimum()"
       "$sum = $path->sumabsxy_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum values taken by coordinate sum abs(X)+abs(Y) reached by
           integer N values in the path.  A minimum always exists but if there's no maximum then
           return "undef".

           SumAbs=abs(X)+abs(Y) is sometimes called the "taxi-cab" or "Manhattan" distance, being
           how far to travel through a square-grid city to get to X,Y.  "sumabsxy_minimum()" is
           then how close to the origin the path extends.

           SumAbs can also be interpreted geometrically as numbering the anti-diagonals of the
           quadrant containing X,Y, which is equivalent to asking which diamond shape X,Y falls
           on.  "sumabsxy_minimum()" is then the smallest such diamond reached by the path.

                    |
                   /|\       SumAbs = which diamond X,Y falls on
                  / | \
                 /  |  \
               -----o-----
                 \  |  /
                  \ | /
                   \|/
                    |

       "$diffxy = $path->diffxy_minimum()"
       "$diffxy = $path->diffxy_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum values taken by coordinate difference X-Y reached by
           integer N values in the path.  If there's no minimum or maximum then return "undef".

           D=X-Y is a leading diagonal.  A path which is always right and below such a diagonal
           has a minimum, for example "HypotOctant".  A path which is always left and above some
           diagonal has a maximum D=X-Y.  For example various wedge-like paths such as
           "PyramidRows" in its default step=2, and "upper octant" paths have a maximum.

                                            /   D=X-Y
                   Path always below     | /
                   has maximum D=X-Y     |/
                                      ---o----
                                        /|
                                       / |      Path always above
                                      /         has minimum D=X-Y

       "$absdiffxy = $path->absdiffxy_minimum()"
       "$absdiffxy = $path->absdiffxy_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum values taken by abs(X-Y) for integer N in the path.  The
           minimum is 0 or more.  If there's maximum then return "undef".

           abs(X-Y) can be interpreted geometrically as the distance away from the X=Y diagonal
           and measured at right-angles to that line.

                d=abs(X-Y)  X=Y line
                      ^    /
                       \  /
                        \/
                        /\
                       /  \
                      /    \
                     o      v
                    /         d=abs(X-Y)

           Paths which visit the X=Y line (or approach it as an infimum) have
           "absdiffxy_minimum() = 0".  Otherwise "absdiffxy_minimum()" is how close they come to
           the line.

           If the path is entirely below the X=Y line so X>=Y then X-Y>=0 and
           "absdiffxy_minimum()" is the same as "diffxy_minimum()".  If the path is entirely
           below the X=Y line then "absdiffxy_minimum()" is "- diffxy_maximum()".

       "$dsumxy = $path->dsumxy_minimum()"
       "$dsumxy = $path->dsumxy_maximum()"
       "$ddiffxy = $path->ddiffxy_minimum()"
       "$ddiffxy = $path->ddiffxy_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum change dSum or dDiffXY occurring in the path for integer
           N to N+1.  For a multi-arm path, the change is N to N+arms so it's the change along
           the same arm.

       "$rsquared = $path->rsquared_minimum()"
       "$rsquared = $path->rsquared_maximum()"
           Return the minimum or maximum Rsquared = X^2+Y^2 reached by integer N values in the
           path.  If there's no minimum or maximum then return "undef".

           Rsquared is always >= 0 so it always has a minimum.  The minimum will be more than 0
           for paths which don't include the origin X=0,Y=0.

           RSquared generally has no maximum since the paths usually extend infinitely in some
           direction.  "rsquared_maximum()" returns "undef" in that case.

       "($dx,$dy) = $path->dir_minimum_dxdy()"
       "($dx,$dy) = $path->dir_maximum_dxdy()"
           Return a vector which is the minimum or maximum angle taken by a step integer N to
           N+1, or for a multi-arm path N to N+arms, so it's the change along the same arm.
           Directions are reckoned anti-clockwise around from the X axis.

                             |  *  dX=2,dY=2
               dX=-1,dY=1  * | /
                            \|/
                       ------+----*  dX=1,dY=0
                             |
                             |
                             * dX=0,dY=-1

           A path which is always goes N,S,E,W such as the "SquareSpiral" has minimum East
           dX=1,dY=0 and maximum South dX=0,dY=-1.

           Paths which go diagonally may have different limits.  For example the "KnightSpiral"
           goes in 2x1 steps and so has minimum East-North-East dX=2,dY=1 and maximum East-South-
           East dX=2,dY=-1.

           If the path has directions approaching 360 degrees then "dir_maximum_dxdy()" is 0,0
           which should be taken to mean a full circle as a supremum.  For example
           "MultipleRings".

           If the path only ever goes East then the maximum is East dX=1,dY=0, and the minimum
           the same.  This isn't particularly interesting, but arises for example in the
           "Columns" path height=0.

       "$bool = $path->turn_any_left()"
       "$bool = $path->turn_any_right()"
       "$bool = $path->turn_any_straight()"
           Return true if the path turns left, right, or straight (which includes 180deg reverse)
           at any integer N.

                           N+1 left

               N-1  --------  N  -->   N+1 straight

                           N+1 right

           A line from N-1 to N is a current direction and the turn at N is then whether point
           N+1 is to the left or right of that line.  Directly along the line is straight, and so
           is anything directly behind as a reverse.  This is the turn style of
           Math::NumSeq::PlanePathTurn.

       "$str = $path->figure()"
           Return a string name of the figure (shape) intended to be drawn at each $n position.
           This is currently either

               "square"     side 1 centred on $x,$y
               "circle"     diameter 1 centred on $x,$y

           Of course this is only a suggestion since PlanePath doesn't draw anything itself.  A
           figure like a diamond for instance can look good too.

   Tree Methods
       Some paths are structured like a tree where each N has a parent and possibly some
       children.

                        123
                       / | \
                    456 999 458
                   /        / \
                 1000    1001 1005

       The N numbering and any relation to X,Y positions varies among the paths.  Some are
       numbered by rows in breadth-first style and some have children with X,Y positions adjacent
       to their parent, but that shouldn't be assumed, only that there's a parent-child relation
       down from some set of root nodes.

       "$bool = $path->is_tree()"
           Return true if $path is a tree.

           The various tree methods have empty or "undef" returns on non-tree paths.  Often it's
           enough to check for that from a desired method rather than a separate "is_tree()"
           check.

       "@n_children = $path->tree_n_children($n)"
           Return a list of N values which are the child nodes of $n, or return an empty list if
           $n has no children.

           There could be no children either because $path is not a tree or because there's no
           children at a particular $n.

       "$num = $path->tree_n_num_children($n)"
           Return the number of children of $n, or 0 if $n has no children, or "undef" if
           "$n < n_start()" (ie. before the start of the path).

           If the tree is considered as a directed graph then this is the "out-degree" of $n.

       "$n_parent = $path->tree_n_parent($n)"
           Return the parent node of $n, or "undef" if it has no parent.

           There is no parent at the root node of the tree, or one of multiple roots, or if $path
           is not a tree.

       "$n_root = $path->tree_n_root ($n)"
           Return the N which is the root node of $n.  This is the top of the tree as would be
           found by following "tree_n_parent()" repeatedly.

           The return is "undef" if there's no $n point or if $path is not a tree.

       "$depth = $path->tree_n_to_depth($n)"
           Return the depth of node $n, or "undef" if there's no point $n.  The top of the tree
           is depth=0, then its children are depth=1, etc.

           The depth is a count of how many parent, grandparent, etc, levels are above $n, ie.
           until reaching "tree_n_to_parent()" returning "undef".  For non-tree paths
           "tree_n_to_parent()" is always "undef" and "tree_n_to_depth()" is always 0.

       "$n_lo = $path->tree_depth_to_n($depth)"
       "$n_hi = $path->tree_depth_to_n_end($depth)"
       "($n_lo, $n_hi) = $path->tree_depth_to_n_range ($depth)"
           Return the first or last N, or both those N, for tree level $depth in the path.  If
           there's no such $depth or if $path is not a tree then return "undef", or for
           "tree_depth_to_n_range()" return an empty list.

           The points $n_lo through $n_hi might not necessarily all be at $depth.  It's possible
           for depths to be interleaved or intermixed in the point numbering.  But many paths are
           breadth-wise successive rows and for them $n_lo to $n_hi inclusive is all $depth.

           $n_hi can only exist if the row has a finite number of points.  That's true of all
           current paths, but perhaps allowance ought to be made for $n_hi as "undef" or some
           such if there is no maximum N for some row.

       "$num = $path->tree_depth_to_width ($depth)"
           Return the number of points at $depth in the tree.  If there's no such $depth or $path
           is not a tree then return "undef".

       "$height = $path->tree_n_to_subheight($n)"
           Return the height of the sub-tree starting at $n, or "undef" if infinite.  The height
           of a tree is the longest distance down to a leaf node.  For example,

               ...                      N     subheight
                 \                     ---    ---------
                  6    7   8            0       undef
                   \    \ /             1       undef
                    3    4   5          2         2
                     \    \ /           3       undef
                      1    2            4         1
                       \  /             5         0
                         0             ...

           At N=0 and all of the left side the tree continues infinitely so the sub-height there
           is "undef" for infinite.  For N=2 the sub-height is 2 because the longest path down is
           2 levels (to N=7 or N=8).  For a leaf node such as N,=5 the sub-height is 0.

   Tree Descriptive Methods
       "$num = $path->tree_num_roots()"
           Return the number of root nodes in $path.  If $path is not a tree then return 0.  Many
           tree paths have a single root and for them the return is 1.

       "@n_list = $path->tree_root_n_list()"
           Return a list of the N values which are the root nodes in $path.  If $path is not a
           tree then this is an empty list.  There are "tree_num_roots()" many return values.

       "$num = $path->tree_num_children_minimum()"
       "$num = $path->tree_num_children_maximum()"
       "@nums = $path->tree_num_children_list()"
           Return the possible number of children of the nodes of $path, either the minimum, the
           maximum, or a list of all possible numbers of children.

           For "tree_num_children_list()" the list of values is in increasing order, so the first
           value is "tree_num_children_minimum()" and the last is "tree_num_children_maximum()".

       "$bool = $path->tree_any_leaf()"
           Return true if there are any leaf nodes in the tree, meaning any N for which
           "tree_n_num_children()" is 0.

           This is the same as "tree_num_children_minimum()==0" since if NumChildren=0 occurs
           then there are leaf nodes.

           Some trees may have no leaf nodes, for example in the complete binary tree of
           "RationalsTree" every node always has 2 children.

   Level Methods
       "level = $path->n_to_level($n)"
           Return the replication level containing $n.  The first level is 0.

       "($n_lo,$n_hi) = $path->level_to_n_range($level)"
           Return the range of N values, inclusive, which comprise a self-similar replication
           level in $path.  If $path has no notion of such levels then return an empty list.

               my ($n_lo, $n_hi) = $path->level_to_n_range(6)
                 or print "no levels in this path";

           For example the "DragonCurve" has levels running 0 to "2**$level", or the
           "HilbertCurve" is 0 to "4**$level - 1".  Most levels are powers like this.  A power
           "2**$level" is a "vertex" style whereas "2**$level - 1" is a "centre" style.  The
           difference is generally whether the X,Y points represent vertices of the object's
           segments as opposed to centres or midpoints.

   Parameter Methods
       "$aref = Math::PlanePath::Foo->parameter_info_array()"
       "@list = Math::PlanePath::Foo->parameter_info_list()"
           Return an arrayref of list describing the parameters taken by a given class.  This
           meant to help making widgets etc for user interaction in a GUI.  Each element is a
           hashref

               {
                 name        =>    parameter key arg for new()
                 share_key   =>    string, or undef
                 description =>    human readable string
                 type        =>    string "integer","boolean","enum" etc
                 default     =>    value
                 minimum     =>    number, or undef
                 maximum     =>    number, or undef
                 width       =>    integer, suggested display size
                 choices     =>    for enum, an arrayref
               }

           "type" is a string, one of

               "integer"
               "enum"
               "boolean"
               "string"
               "filename"

           "filename" is separate from "string" since it might require subtly different handling
           to reach Perl as a byte string, whereas a "string" type might in principle take Perl
           wide chars.

           For "enum" the "choices" field is the possible values, such as

               { name => "flavour",
                 type => "enum",
                 choices => ["strawberry","chocolate"],
               }

           "minimum" and/or "maximum" are omitted if there's no hard limit on the parameter.

           "share_key" is designed to indicate when parameters from different "PlanePath" classes
           can done by a single control widget in a GUI etc.  Normally the "name" is enough, but
           when the same name has slightly different meanings in different classes a "share_key"
           allows the same meanings to be matched up.

       "$hashref = Math::PlanePath::Foo->parameter_info_hash()"
           Return a hashref mapping parameter names "$info->{'name'}" to their $info records.

               { wider => { name => "wider",
                            type => "integer",
                            ...
                          },
               }

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

       The classes are mostly based on integer $n positions and those designed for a square grid
       turn an integer $n into integer "$x,$y".  Usually they give in-between positions for
       fractional $n too.  Classes not on a square grid but instead giving fractional X,Y such as
       "SacksSpiral" and "VogelFloret" are designed for a unit circle at each $n but they too can
       give in-between positions on request.

       All X,Y positions are calculated by separate "n_to_xy()" calls.  To follow a path use
       successive $n values starting from "$path->n_start()".

           foreach my $n ($path->n_start .. 100) {
             my ($x,$y) = $path->n_to_xy($n);
             print "$n  $x,$y\n";
           }

       The separate "n_to_xy()" calls were motivated by plotting just some N points of a path,
       such as just the primes or the perfect squares.  Successive positions in paths could
       perhaps be done more efficiently in an iterator style.  Paths with a quadratic "step" are
       not much worse than a "sqrt()" to break N into a segment and offset, but the self-similar
       paths which chop N into digits of some radix could increment instead of recalculate.

       If interested only in a particular rectangle or similar region then iterating has the
       disadvantage that it may stray outside the target region for a long time, making an
       iterator much less useful than it seems.  For wild paths it can be better to apply
       "xy_to_n()" by rows or similar across the desired region.

       Math::NumSeq::PlanePathCoord etc offer the PlanePath coordinates, directions, turns, etc
       as sequences.  The iterator forms there simply make repeated calls to "n_to_xy()" etc.

   Scaling and Orientation
       The paths generally make a first move to the right and go anti-clockwise around from the X
       axis, unless there's some more natural orientation.  Anti-clockwise is the usual direction
       for mathematical spirals.

       There's no parameters for scaling, offset or reflection as those things are thought better
       left to a general coordinate transformer, for example to expand or invert for display.
       Some easy transformations can be had just from the X,Y with

           -X,Y        flip horizontally (mirror image)
           X,-Y        flip vertically (across the X axis)

           -Y,X        rotate +90 degrees  (anti-clockwise)
           Y,-X        rotate -90 degrees  (clockwise)
           -X,-Y       rotate 180 degrees

       Flip vertically makes spirals go clockwise instead of anti-clockwise, or a flip
       horizontally the same but starting on the left at the negative X axis.  See "Triangular
       Lattice" below for 60 degree rotations of the triangular grid paths too.

       The Rows and Columns paths are exceptions to the rule of not having rotated versions of
       paths.  They began as ways to pass in width and height as generic parameters and let the
       path use the one or the other.

       For scaling and shifting see for example Transform::Canvas, and to rotate as well see
       Geometry::AffineTransform.

   Loop Step
       The paths can be characterized by how much longer each loop or repetition is than the
       preceding one.  For example each cycle around the "SquareSpiral" is 8 more N points than
       the preceding.

             Step        Path
             ----        ----
               0       Rows, Columns (fixed widths)
               1       Diagonals
              2/2      DiagonalsOctant (2 rows for +2)
               2       SacksSpiral, Corner, CornerAlternating,
                         PyramidSides, PyramidRows (default)
               4       DiamondSpiral, AztecDiamondRings, Staircase
              4/2      CellularRule54, CellularRule57,
                         DiagonalsAlternating (2 rows for +4)
               5       PentSpiral, PentSpiralSkewed
              5.65     PixelRings (average about 4*sqrt(2))
               6       HexSpiral, HexSpiralSkewed, MPeaks,
                         MultipleRings (default)
              6/2      CellularRule190 (2 rows for +6)
              6.28     ArchimedeanChords (approaching 2*pi),
                         FilledRings (average 2*pi)
               7       HeptSpiralSkewed
               8       SquareSpiral, PyramidSpiral
             16/2      StaircaseAlternating (up and back for +16)
               9       TriangleSpiral, TriangleSpiralSkewed
              12       AnvilSpiral
              16       OctagramSpiral, ToothpickSpiral
             19.74     TheodorusSpiral (approaching 2*pi^2)
             32/4      KnightSpiral (4 loops 2-wide for +32)
              64       DiamondArms (each arm)
              72       GreekKeySpiral
             128       SquareArms (each arm)
            128/4      CretanLabyrinth (4 loops for +128)
             216       HexArms (each arm)

           totient     CoprimeColumns, DiagonalRationals
           numdivisors DivisibleColumns
           various     CellularRule

           parameter   MultipleRings, PyramidRows

       The step determines which quadratic number sequences make straight lines.  For example the
       gap between successive perfect squares increases by 2 each time (4 to 9 is +5, 9 to 16 is
       +7, 16 to 25 is +9, etc), so the perfect squares make a straight line in the paths of step
       2.

       In general straight lines on stepped paths are quadratics

          N = a*k^2 + b*k + c    where a=step/2

       The polygonal numbers are like this, with the (step+2)-gonal numbers making a straight
       line on a "step" path.  For example the 7-gonals (heptagonals) are 5/2*k^2-3/2*k and make
       a straight line on the step=5 "PentSpiral".  Or the 8-gonal octagonal numbers
       6/2*k^2-4/2*k on the step=6 "HexSpiral".

       There are various interesting properties of primes in quadratic progressions.  Some
       quadratics seem to have more primes than others.  For example see "Lucky Numbers of Euler"
       in Math::PlanePath::PyramidSides.  Many quadratics have no primes at all, or none above a
       certain point, either trivially if always a multiple of 2 etc, or by a more sophisticated
       reasoning.  See "Step 3 Pentagonals" in Math::PlanePath::PyramidRows for a factorization
       on the roots making a no-primes gap.

       A 4*step path splits a straight line in two, so for example the perfect squares are a
       straight line on the step=2 "Corner" path, and then on the step=8 "SquareSpiral" they
       instead fall on two lines (lower left and upper right).  In the bigger step there's one
       line of the even squares (2k)^2 == 4*k^2 and another of the odd squares (2k+1)^2.  The gap
       between successive even squares increases by 8 each time and likewise between odd squares.

   Self-Similar Powers
       The self-similar patterns such as "PeanoCurve" generally have a base pattern which repeats
       at powers N=base^level or squares N=(base*base)^level.  Or some multiple or relationship
       to such a power for things like "KochPeaks" and "GosperIslands".

           Base          Path
           ----          ----
             2         HilbertCurve, HilbertSides, HilbertSpiral,
                         ZOrderCurve (default), GrayCode (default),
                         BetaOmega, AR2W2Curve, HIndexing,
                         ImaginaryBase (default), ImaginaryHalf (default),
                         SierpinskiCurve, SierpinskiCurveStair,
                         CubicBase (default) CornerReplicate,
                         ComplexMinus (default), ComplexPlus (default),
                         ComplexRevolving, DragonCurve, DragonRounded,
                         DragonMidpoint, AlternatePaper, AlternatePaperMidpoint,
                         CCurve, DigitGroups (default), PowerArray (default)
             3         PeanoCurve (default), PeanoDiagonals (default),
                         WunderlichSerpentine (default),WunderlichMeander,
                         KochelCurve, GosperIslands, GosperSide
                         SierpinskiTriangle, SierpinskiArrowhead,
                         SierpinskiArrowheadCentres,
                         TerdragonCurve, TerdragonRounded, TerdragonMidpoint,
                         AlternateTerdragon,
                         UlamWarburton, UlamWarburtonQuarter (each level)
             4         KochCurve, KochPeaks, KochSnowflakes, KochSquareflakes,
                         LTiling,
             5         QuintetCurve, QuintetCentres, QuintetReplicate,
                         DekkingCurve, DekkingCentres, CincoCurve,
                         R5DragonCurve, R5DragonMidpoint
             7         Flowsnake, FlowsnakeCentres, GosperReplicate
             8         QuadricCurve, QuadricIslands
             9         SquareReplicate
           Fibonacci   FibonacciWordFractal, WythoffArray
           parameter   PeanoCurve, PeanoDiagonals, WunderlichSerpentine,
                         ZOrderCurve, GrayCode, ImaginaryBase, ImaginaryHalf,
                         CubicBase, ComplexPlus, ComplexMinus, DigitGroups,
                         PowerArray

       Many number sequences plotted on these self-similar paths tend to be fairly random, or
       merely show the tiling or path layout rather than much about the number sequence.
       Sequences related to the base can make holes or patterns picking out parts of the path.
       For example numbers without a particular digit (or digits) in the relevant base show up as
       holes.  See for example "Power of 2 Values" in Math::PlanePath::ZOrderCurve.

   Triangular Lattice
       Some paths are on triangular or "A2" lattice points like

             *---*---*---*---*---*
            / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ /
           *---*---*---*---*---*
            \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \
             *---*---*---*---*---*
            / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ /
           *---*---*---*---*---*
            \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \
             *---*---*---*---*---*
            / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ /
           *---*---*---*---*---*

       This is done in integer X,Y on a square grid by using every second square and offsetting
       alternate rows.  This means sum X+Y even, ie. X,Y either both even or both odd, not of
       opposite parity.

           . * . * . * . * . * . *
           * . * . * . * . * . * .
           . * . * . * . * . * . *
           * . * . * . * . * . * .
           . * . * . * . * . * . *
           * . * . * . * . * . * .

       The X axis the and diagonals X=Y and X=-Y divide the plane into six equal parts in this
       grid.

              X=-Y     X=Y
                \     /
                 \   /
                  \ /
           ----------------- X=0
                  / \
                 /   \
                /     \

       The diagonal X=3*Y is the middle of the first sixth, representing a twelfth of the plane.

       The resulting triangles are flatter than they should be.  The triangle base is width=2 and
       top is height=1, whereas it would be height=sqrt(3) for an equilateral triangle.  That
       sqrt(3) factor can be applied if desired,

           X, Y*sqrt(3)          side length 2

           X/2, Y*sqrt(3)/2      side length 1

       Integer Y values have the advantage of fitting pixels on the usual kind of raster computer
       screen, and not losing precision in floating point results.

       If doing a general-purpose coordinate rotation then be sure to apply the sqrt(3) scale
       factor before rotating or the result will be skewed.  60 degree rotations can be made
       within the integer X,Y coordinates directly as follows, all giving integer X,Y results.

           ( X-3Y)/2, ( X+Y)/2     rotate +60   (anti-clockwise)
           ( X+3Y)/2, (-X+Y)/2     rotate -60   (clockwise)
           (-X-3Y)/2, ( X-Y)/2     rotate +120
           (-X+3Y)/2, (-X-Y)/2     rotate -120
           -X,-Y                   rotate 180

           (X+3Y)/2, (X-Y)/2       mirror across the X=3*Y twelfth (30deg)

       The sqrt(3) factor can be worked into a hypotenuse radial distance calculation as follows
       if comparing distances from the origin.

           hypot = sqrt(X*X + 3*Y*Y)

       See for instance "TriangularHypot" which is triangular points ordered by this radial
       distance.

FORMULAS

       The formulas section in the POD of each class describes some of the calculations.  This
       might be of interest even if the code is not.

   Triangular Calculations
       For a triangular lattice, the rotation formulas above allow calculations to be done in the
       rectangular X,Y coordinates which are the inputs and outputs of the PlanePath functions.
       Another way is to number vertically on a 60 degree angle with coordinates i,j,

                 ...
                 *   *   *      2
               *   *   *       1
             *   *   *      j=0
           i=0  1   2

       These coordinates are sometimes used for hexagonal grids in board games etc.  Using this
       internally can simplify rotations a little,

           -j, i+j         rotate +60   (anti-clockwise)
           i+j, -i         rotate -60   (clockwise)
           -i-j, i         rotate +120
           j, -i-j         rotate -120
           -i, -j          rotate 180

       Conversions between i,j and the rectangular X,Y are

           X = 2*i + j         i = (X-Y)/2
           Y = j               j = Y

       A third coordinate k at a +120 degrees angle can be used too,

            k=0  k=1 k=2
               *   *   *
                 *   *   *
                   *   *   *
                    0   1   2

       This is redundant in that it doesn't number anything i,j alone can't already, but it has
       the advantage of turning rotations into just sign changes and swaps,

           -k, i, j        rotate +60
           j, k, -i        rotate -60
           -j, -k, i       rotate +120
           k, -i, -j       rotate -120
           -i, -j, -k      rotate 180

       The conversions between i,j,k and the rectangular X,Y are like the i,j above but with k
       worked in too.

           X = 2i + j - k        i = (X-Y)/2        i = (X+Y)/2
           Y = j + k             j = Y         or   j = 0
                                 k = 0              k = Y

   N to dX,dY -- Fractional
       "n_to_dxdy()" is the change from N to N+1, and is designed both for integer N and
       fractional N.  For fractional N it can be convenient to calculate a dX,dY at floor(N) and
       at floor(N)+1 and then combine the two in proportion to frac(N).

                            int+2
                             |
                             |
                             N+1    \
                            /|       |
                           / |       |
                          /  |       | frac
                         /   |       |
                        /    |       |
                       /     |      /
              int-----N------int+1
           this_dX  dX,dY     next_dX
           this_dY            next_dY

              |-------|------|
                frac   1-frac

           int = int(N)
           frac = N - int    0 <= frac < 1

           this_dX,this_dY  at int
           next_dX,next_dY  at int+1

           at fractional N
             dX = this_dX * (1-frac) + next_dX * frac
             dY = this_dY * (1-frac) + next_dY * frac

       This is combination of this_dX,this_dY and next_dX,next_dY in proportion to the distances
       from positions N to int+1 and from int+1 to N+1.

       The formulas can be rearranged to

           dX = this_dX + frac*(next_dX - this_dX)
           dY = this_dY + frac*(next_dY - this_dY)

       which is like dX,dY at the integer position plus fractional part of a turn or change to
       the next dX,dY.

   N to dX,dY -- Self-Similar
       For most of the self-similar paths such as "HilbertCurve", the change dX,dY is determined
       by following the state table transitions down through either all digits of N, or to the
       last non-9 digit, ie. drop any low digits equal to radix-1.

       Generally paths which are the edges of some tiling use all digits, and those which are the
       centres of a tiling stop at the lowest non-9.  This can be seen for example in the
       "DekkingCurve" using all digits, whereas its "DekkingCentres" variant stops at the lowest
       non-24.

       Perhaps this all-digits vs low-non-9 would even characterize path style as edges or
       centres of a tiling, when a path is specified in some way that a tiling is not quite
       obvious.

SUBCLASSING

       The mandatory methods for a PlanePath subclass are

           n_to_xy()
           xy_to_n()
           xy_to_n_list()     if multiple N's map to an X,Y
           rect_to_n_range()

       It sometimes happens that one of "n_to_xy()" or "xy_to_n()" is easier than the other but
       both should be implemented.

       "n_to_xy()" should do something sensible on fractional N.  The suggestion is to make it an
       X,Y proportionally between integer N positions.  It could be along a straight line or an
       arc as best suits the path.  A straight line can be done simply by two calculations of the
       surrounding integer points, until it's clear how to work the fraction into the code
       directly.

       "xy_to_n_list()" has a base implementation calling plain "xy_to_n()" to give a single N at
       X,Y.  If a path has multiple Ns at an X,Y (eg. "DragonCurve") then it must implement
       "xy_to_n_list()" to return all those Ns, and must also implement a plain "xy_to_n()"
       returning the first of them.

       "rect_to_n_range()" can initially be any convenient over-estimate.  It should give N big
       enough that from there onwards all points are sure to be beyond the given X,Y rectangle.

       The following descriptive methods have base implementations

           n_start()           1
           class_x_negative()  \ 1, so whole plane
           class_y_negative()  /
           x_negative()        calls class_x_negative()
           y_negative()        calls class_x_negative()
           x_negative_at_n()   undef \ as for no negatives
           y_negative_at_n()   undef /

       The base "n_start()" starts at N=1.  Paths which treat N as digits of some radix or where
       there's self-similar replication are often best started from N=0 instead since doing so
       puts nice powers-of-2 etc on the axes or diagonals.

           use constant n_start => 0;    # digit or replication style

       Paths which use only parts of the plane should define "class_x_negative()" and/or
       "class_y_negative()" to false.  For example if only the first quadrant X>=0,Y>=0 then

           use constant class_x_negative => 0;
           use constant class_y_negative => 0;

       If negativeness varies with path parameters then "x_negative()" and/or "y_negative()"
       follow those parameters and the "class_()" forms are whether any set of parameters ever
       gives negative.

       The following methods have base implementations calling "n_to_xy()".  A subclass can
       implement them directly if they can be done more efficiently.

           n_to_dxdy()           calls n_to_xy() twice
           n_to_rsquared()       calls n_to_xy()
           n_to_radius()         sqrt of n_to_rsquared()

       "SacksSpiral" is an example of an easy "n_to_rsquared()".  "TheodorusSpiral" is only
       slightly trickier.  Unless a path has some sort of easy X^2+Y^2 then it might as well let
       the base implementation call "n_to_xy()".

       The way "n_to_dxdy()" supports fractional N can be a little tricky.  One way is to
       calculate dX,dY on the integer N below and above and combine as described in "N to dX,dY
       -- Fractional".  For some paths the calculation of turn or direction at ceil(N) can be
       worked into a calculation of the direction at floor(N) so not much more work.

       The following methods have base implementations calling "xy_to_n()".  A subclass might
       implement them directly if it can be done more efficiently.

           xy_is_visited()          defined(xy_to_n($x,$y))
           xyxy_to_n()              \
           xyxy_to_n_either()       | calling xy_to_n_list()
           xyxy_to_n_list()         |
           xyxy_to_n_list_either()  /

       Paths such as "SquareSpiral" which fill the plane have "xy_is_visited()" always true, so
       for them

           use constant xy_is_visited => 1;

       For a tree path the following methods are mandatory

           tree_n_parent()
           tree_n_children()
           tree_n_to_depth()
           tree_depth_to_n()
           tree_num_children_list()
           tree_n_to_subheight()

       The other tree methods have base implementations,

       "is_tree()"
           Checks for "n_start()" having non-zero "tree_n_to_num_children()".  Usually this
           suffices, expecting "n_start()" to be a root node and to have some children.

       "tree_n_num_children()"
           Calls "tree_n_children()" and counts the number of return values.  Many trees can
           count the children with less work than calculating outright, for example
           "RationalsTree" is simply always 2 for N>=Nstart.

       "tree_depth_to_n_end()"
           Calls "tree_depth_to_n($depth+1)-1".  This assumes that the depth level ends where the
           next begins.  This is true for the various breadth-wise tree traversals, but anything
           interleaved etc will need its own implementation.

       "tree_depth_to_n_range()"
           Calls "tree_depth_to_n()" and "tree_depth_to_n_end()".  For some paths the row start
           and end, or start and width, might be calculated together more efficiently.

       "tree_depth_to_width()"
           Returns "tree_depth_to_n_end() - tree_depth_to_n() + 1".  This suits breadth-wise
           style paths where all points at $depth are in a contiguous block.  Any path not like
           that will need its own "tree_depth_to_width()".

       "tree_num_children_minimum()", "tree_num_children_maximum()"
           Return the first and last values of "tree_num_children_list()" as the minimum and
           maximum.

       "tree_any_leaf()"
           Calls "tree_num_children_minimum()".  If the minimum "num_children" is 0 then there's
           leaf nodes.

SEE ALSO

       Math::PlanePath::SquareSpiral, Math::PlanePath::PyramidSpiral,
       Math::PlanePath::TriangleSpiral, Math::PlanePath::TriangleSpiralSkewed,
       Math::PlanePath::DiamondSpiral, Math::PlanePath::PentSpiral,
       Math::PlanePath::PentSpiralSkewed, Math::PlanePath::HexSpiral,
       Math::PlanePath::HexSpiralSkewed, Math::PlanePath::HeptSpiralSkewed,
       Math::PlanePath::AnvilSpiral, Math::PlanePath::OctagramSpiral,
       Math::PlanePath::KnightSpiral, Math::PlanePath::CretanLabyrinth

       Math::PlanePath::HexArms, Math::PlanePath::SquareArms, Math::PlanePath::DiamondArms,
       Math::PlanePath::AztecDiamondRings, Math::PlanePath::GreekKeySpiral,
       Math::PlanePath::MPeaks

       Math::PlanePath::SacksSpiral, Math::PlanePath::VogelFloret,
       Math::PlanePath::TheodorusSpiral, Math::PlanePath::ArchimedeanChords,
       Math::PlanePath::MultipleRings, Math::PlanePath::PixelRings, Math::PlanePath::FilledRings,
       Math::PlanePath::Hypot, Math::PlanePath::HypotOctant, Math::PlanePath::TriangularHypot,
       Math::PlanePath::PythagoreanTree

       Math::PlanePath::PeanoCurve, Math::PlanePath::PeanoDiagonals,
       Math::PlanePath::WunderlichSerpentine, Math::PlanePath::WunderlichMeander,
       Math::PlanePath::HilbertCurve, Math::PlanePath::HilbertSides,
       Math::PlanePath::HilbertSpiral, Math::PlanePath::ZOrderCurve, Math::PlanePath::GrayCode,
       Math::PlanePath::AR2W2Curve, Math::PlanePath::BetaOmega, Math::PlanePath::KochelCurve,
       Math::PlanePath::DekkingCurve, Math::PlanePath::DekkingCentres,
       Math::PlanePath::CincoCurve

       Math::PlanePath::ImaginaryBase, Math::PlanePath::ImaginaryHalf,
       Math::PlanePath::CubicBase, Math::PlanePath::SquareReplicate,
       Math::PlanePath::CornerReplicate, Math::PlanePath::LTiling, Math::PlanePath::DigitGroups,
       Math::PlanePath::FibonacciWordFractal

       Math::PlanePath::Flowsnake, Math::PlanePath::FlowsnakeCentres,
       Math::PlanePath::GosperReplicate, Math::PlanePath::GosperIslands,
       Math::PlanePath::GosperSide

       Math::PlanePath::QuintetCurve, Math::PlanePath::QuintetCentres,
       Math::PlanePath::QuintetReplicate

       Math::PlanePath::KochCurve, Math::PlanePath::KochPeaks, Math::PlanePath::KochSnowflakes,
       Math::PlanePath::KochSquareflakes

       Math::PlanePath::QuadricCurve, Math::PlanePath::QuadricIslands

       Math::PlanePath::SierpinskiCurve, Math::PlanePath::SierpinskiCurveStair,
       Math::PlanePath::HIndexing

       Math::PlanePath::SierpinskiTriangle, Math::PlanePath::SierpinskiArrowhead,
       Math::PlanePath::SierpinskiArrowheadCentres

       Math::PlanePath::DragonCurve, Math::PlanePath::DragonRounded,
       Math::PlanePath::DragonMidpoint, Math::PlanePath::AlternatePaper,
       Math::PlanePath::AlternatePaperMidpoint, Math::PlanePath::TerdragonCurve,
       Math::PlanePath::TerdragonRounded, Math::PlanePath::TerdragonMidpoint,
       Math::PlanePath::AlternateTerdragon, Math::PlanePath::R5DragonCurve,
       Math::PlanePath::R5DragonMidpoint, Math::PlanePath::CCurve

       Math::PlanePath::ComplexPlus, Math::PlanePath::ComplexMinus,
       Math::PlanePath::ComplexRevolving

       Math::PlanePath::Rows, Math::PlanePath::Columns, Math::PlanePath::Diagonals,
       Math::PlanePath::DiagonalsAlternating, Math::PlanePath::DiagonalsOctant,
       Math::PlanePath::Staircase, Math::PlanePath::StaircaseAlternating, Math::PlanePath::Corner
       Math::PlanePath::CornerAlternating

       Math::PlanePath::PyramidRows, Math::PlanePath::PyramidSides,
       Math::PlanePath::CellularRule, Math::PlanePath::CellularRule54,
       Math::PlanePath::CellularRule57, Math::PlanePath::CellularRule190,
       Math::PlanePath::UlamWarburton, Math::PlanePath::UlamWarburtonQuarter

       Math::PlanePath::DiagonalRationals, Math::PlanePath::FactorRationals,
       Math::PlanePath::GcdRationals, Math::PlanePath::RationalsTree,
       Math::PlanePath::FractionsTree, Math::PlanePath::ChanTree, Math::PlanePath::CfracDigits,
       Math::PlanePath::CoprimeColumns, Math::PlanePath::DivisibleColumns,
       Math::PlanePath::WythoffArray, Math::PlanePath::WythoffPreliminaryTriangle,
       Math::PlanePath::PowerArray, Math::PlanePath::File

       Math::PlanePath::LCornerTree, Math::PlanePath::LCornerReplicate,
       Math::PlanePath::ToothpickTree, Math::PlanePath::ToothpickReplicate,
       Math::PlanePath::ToothpickUpist, Math::PlanePath::ToothpickSpiral,
       Math::PlanePath::OneOfEight, Math::PlanePath::HTree

       Math::NumSeq::PlanePathCoord, Math::NumSeq::PlanePathDelta, Math::NumSeq::PlanePathTurn,
       Math::NumSeq::PlanePathN

       math-image, displaying various sequences on these paths.

       examples/numbers.pl, to print all the paths.

   Other Ways To Do It
       Math::Fractal::Curve, Math::Curve::Hilbert, Algorithm::SpatialIndex::Strategy::QuadTree

       PerlMagick (module Image::Magick) demo scripts lsys.pl and tree.pl

HOME PAGE

       <http://user42.tuxfamily.org/math-planepath/index.html>

       <http://user42.tuxfamily.org/math-planepath/gallery.html>

LICENSE

       Copyright 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 Kevin Ryde

       This file is part of Math-PlanePath.

       Math-PlanePath is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms
       of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either
       version 3, or (at your option) any later version.

       Math-PlanePath is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY
       WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
       PURPOSE.  See the GNU General Public License for more details.

       You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with Math-
       PlanePath.  If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.