Provided by: perl-doc_5.36.0-7_all 
NAME
perlvar - Perl predefined variables
DESCRIPTION
The Syntax of Variable Names
Variable names in Perl can have several formats. Usually, they must begin with a letter
or underscore, in which case they can be arbitrarily long (up to an internal limit of 251
characters) and may contain letters, digits, underscores, or the special sequence "::" or
"'". In this case, the part before the last "::" or "'" is taken to be a package
qualifier; see perlmod. A Unicode letter that is not ASCII is not considered to be a
letter unless "use utf8" is in effect, and somewhat more complicated rules apply; see
"Identifier parsing" in perldata for details.
Perl variable names may also be a sequence of digits, a single punctuation character, or
the two-character sequence: "^" (caret or CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT) followed by any one of the
characters "[][A-Z^_?\]". These names are all reserved for special uses by Perl; for
example, the all-digits names are used to hold data captured by backreferences after a
regular expression match.
Since Perl v5.6.0, Perl variable names may also be alphanumeric strings preceded by a
caret. These must all be written using the demarcated variable form using curly braces
such as "${^Foo}"; the braces are not optional. "${^Foo}" denotes the scalar variable
whose name is considered to be a control-"F" followed by two "o"'s. (See "Demarcated
variable names using braces" in perldata for more information on this form of spelling a
variable name or specifying access to an element of an array or a hash). These variables
are reserved for future special uses by Perl, except for the ones that begin with "^_"
(caret-underscore). No name that begins with "^_" will acquire a special meaning in any
future version of Perl; such names may therefore be used safely in programs. $^_ itself,
however, is reserved.
Note that you also must use the demarcated form to access subscripts of variables of this
type when interpolating, for instance to access the first element of the "@{^CAPTURE}"
variable inside of a double quoted string you would write "${^CAPTURE[0]}" and NOT
"${^CAPTURE}[0]" which would mean to reference a scalar variable named "${^CAPTURE}" and
not index 0 of the magic "@{^CAPTURE}" array which is populated by the regex engine.
Perl identifiers that begin with digits or punctuation characters are exempt from the
effects of the "package" declaration and are always forced to be in package "main"; they
are also exempt from "strict 'vars'" errors. A few other names are also exempt in these
ways:
ENV STDIN
INC STDOUT
ARGV STDERR
ARGVOUT
SIG
In particular, the special "${^_XYZ}" variables are always taken to be in package "main",
regardless of any "package" declarations presently in scope.
SPECIAL VARIABLES
The following names have special meaning to Perl. Most punctuation names have reasonable
mnemonics, or analogs in the shells. Nevertheless, if you wish to use long variable
names, you need only say:
use English;
at the top of your program. This aliases all the short names to the long names in the
current package. Some even have medium names, generally borrowed from awk. For more
info, please see English.
Before you continue, note the sort order for variables. In general, we first list the
variables in case-insensitive, almost-lexigraphical order (ignoring the "{" or "^"
preceding words, as in "${^UNICODE}" or $^T), although $_ and @_ move up to the top of the
pile. For variables with the same identifier, we list it in order of scalar, array, hash,
and bareword.
General Variables
$ARG
$_ The default input and pattern-searching space. The following pairs are
equivalent:
while (<>) {...} # equivalent only in while!
while (defined($_ = <>)) {...}
/^Subject:/
$_ =~ /^Subject:/
tr/a-z/A-Z/
$_ =~ tr/a-z/A-Z/
chomp
chomp($_)
Here are the places where Perl will assume $_ even if you don't use it:
• The following functions use $_ as a default argument:
abs, alarm, chomp, chop, chr, chroot, cos, defined, eval, evalbytes, exp, fc,
glob, hex, int, lc, lcfirst, length, log, lstat, mkdir, oct, ord, pos, print,
printf, quotemeta, readlink, readpipe, ref, require, reverse (in scalar context
only), rmdir, say, sin, split (for its second argument), sqrt, stat, study, uc,
ucfirst, unlink, unpack.
• All file tests ("-f", "-d") except for "-t", which defaults to STDIN. See "-X"
in perlfunc
• The pattern matching operations "m//", "s///" and "tr///" (aka "y///") when
used without an "=~" operator.
• The default iterator variable in a "foreach" loop if no other variable is
supplied.
• The implicit iterator variable in the "grep()" and "map()" functions.
• The implicit variable of "given()".
• The default place to put the next value or input record when a "<FH>",
"readline", "readdir" or "each" operation's result is tested by itself as the
sole criterion of a "while" test. Outside a "while" test, this will not
happen.
$_ is a global variable.
However, between perl v5.10.0 and v5.24.0, it could be used lexically by writing
"my $_". Making $_ refer to the global $_ in the same scope was then possible
with "our $_". This experimental feature was removed and is now a fatal error,
but you may encounter it in older code.
Mnemonic: underline is understood in certain operations.
@ARG
@_ Within a subroutine the array @_ contains the parameters passed to that
subroutine. Inside a subroutine, @_ is the default array for the array operators
"pop" and "shift".
See perlsub.
$LIST_SEPARATOR
$" When an array or an array slice is interpolated into a double-quoted string or a
similar context such as "/.../", its elements are separated by this value.
Default is a space. For example, this:
print "The array is: @array\n";
is equivalent to this:
print "The array is: " . join($", @array) . "\n";
Mnemonic: works in double-quoted context.
$PROCESS_ID
$PID
$$ The process number of the Perl running this script. Though you can set this
variable, doing so is generally discouraged, although it can be invaluable for
some testing purposes. It will be reset automatically across "fork()" calls.
Note for Linux and Debian GNU/kFreeBSD users: Before Perl v5.16.0 perl would
emulate POSIX semantics on Linux systems using LinuxThreads, a partial
implementation of POSIX Threads that has since been superseded by the Native POSIX
Thread Library (NPTL).
LinuxThreads is now obsolete on Linux, and caching "getpid()" like this made
embedding perl unnecessarily complex (since you'd have to manually update the
value of $$), so now $$ and "getppid()" will always return the same values as the
underlying C library.
Debian GNU/kFreeBSD systems also used LinuxThreads up until and including the 6.0
release, but after that moved to FreeBSD thread semantics, which are POSIX-like.
To see if your system is affected by this discrepancy check if "getconf
GNU_LIBPTHREAD_VERSION | grep -q NPTL" returns a false value. NTPL threads
preserve the POSIX semantics.
Mnemonic: same as shells.
$PROGRAM_NAME
$0 Contains the name of the program being executed.
On some (but not all) operating systems assigning to $0 modifies the argument area
that the "ps" program sees. On some platforms you may have to use special "ps"
options or a different "ps" to see the changes. Modifying the $0 is more useful
as a way of indicating the current program state than it is for hiding the program
you're running.
Note that there are platform-specific limitations on the maximum length of $0. In
the most extreme case it may be limited to the space occupied by the original $0.
In some platforms there may be arbitrary amount of padding, for example space
characters, after the modified name as shown by "ps". In some platforms this
padding may extend all the way to the original length of the argument area, no
matter what you do (this is the case for example with Linux 2.2).
Note for BSD users: setting $0 does not completely remove "perl" from the ps(1)
output. For example, setting $0 to "foobar" may result in "perl: foobar (perl)"
(whether both the "perl: " prefix and the " (perl)" suffix are shown depends on
your exact BSD variant and version). This is an operating system feature, Perl
cannot help it.
In multithreaded scripts Perl coordinates the threads so that any thread may
modify its copy of the $0 and the change becomes visible to ps(1) (assuming the
operating system plays along). Note that the view of $0 the other threads have
will not change since they have their own copies of it.
If the program has been given to perl via the switches "-e" or "-E", $0 will
contain the string "-e".
On Linux as of perl v5.14.0 the legacy process name will be set with prctl(2), in
addition to altering the POSIX name via "argv[0]" as perl has done since version
4.000. Now system utilities that read the legacy process name such as ps, top and
killall will recognize the name you set when assigning to $0. The string you
supply will be cut off at 16 bytes, this is a limitation imposed by Linux.
Wide characters are invalid in $0 values. For historical reasons, though, Perl
accepts them and encodes them to UTF-8. When this happens a wide-character warning
is triggered.
Mnemonic: same as sh and ksh.
$REAL_GROUP_ID
$GID
$( The real gid of this process. If you are on a machine that supports membership in
multiple groups simultaneously, gives a space separated list of groups you are in.
The first number is the one returned by "getgid()", and the subsequent ones by
"getgroups()", one of which may be the same as the first number.
However, a value assigned to $( must be a single number used to set the real gid.
So the value given by $( should not be assigned back to $( without being forced
numeric, such as by adding zero. Note that this is different to the effective gid
($)) which does take a list.
You can change both the real gid and the effective gid at the same time by using
"POSIX::setgid()". Changes to $( require a check to $! to detect any possible
errors after an attempted change.
Mnemonic: parentheses are used to group things. The real gid is the group you
left, if you're running setgid.
$EFFECTIVE_GROUP_ID
$EGID
$) The effective gid of this process. If you are on a machine that supports
membership in multiple groups simultaneously, gives a space separated list of
groups you are in. The first number is the one returned by "getegid()", and the
subsequent ones by "getgroups()", one of which may be the same as the first
number.
Similarly, a value assigned to $) must also be a space-separated list of numbers.
The first number sets the effective gid, and the rest (if any) are passed to
"setgroups()". To get the effect of an empty list for "setgroups()", just repeat
the new effective gid; that is, to force an effective gid of 5 and an effectively
empty "setgroups()" list, say " $) = "5 5" ".
You can change both the effective gid and the real gid at the same time by using
"POSIX::setgid()" (use only a single numeric argument). Changes to $) require a
check to $! to detect any possible errors after an attempted change.
$<, $>, $( and $) can be set only on machines that support the corresponding
set[re][ug]id() routine. $( and $) can be swapped only on machines supporting
"setregid()".
Mnemonic: parentheses are used to group things. The effective gid is the group
that's right for you, if you're running setgid.
$REAL_USER_ID
$UID
$< The real uid of this process. You can change both the real uid and the effective
uid at the same time by using "POSIX::setuid()". Since changes to $< require a
system call, check $! after a change attempt to detect any possible errors.
Mnemonic: it's the uid you came from, if you're running setuid.
$EFFECTIVE_USER_ID
$EUID
$> The effective uid of this process. For example:
$< = $>; # set real to effective uid
($<,$>) = ($>,$<); # swap real and effective uids
You can change both the effective uid and the real uid at the same time by using
"POSIX::setuid()". Changes to $> require a check to $! to detect any possible
errors after an attempted change.
$< and $> can be swapped only on machines supporting "setreuid()".
Mnemonic: it's the uid you went to, if you're running setuid.
$SUBSCRIPT_SEPARATOR
$SUBSEP
$; The subscript separator for multidimensional array emulation. If you refer to a
hash element as
$foo{$x,$y,$z}
it really means
$foo{join($;, $x, $y, $z)}
But don't put
@foo{$x,$y,$z} # a slice--note the @
which means
($foo{$x},$foo{$y},$foo{$z})
Default is "\034", the same as SUBSEP in awk. If your keys contain binary data
there might not be any safe value for $;.
Consider using "real" multidimensional arrays as described in perllol.
Mnemonic: comma (the syntactic subscript separator) is a semi-semicolon.
$a
$b Special package variables when using "sort()", see "sort" in perlfunc. Because of
this specialness $a and $b don't need to be declared (using "use vars", or
"our()") even when using the "strict 'vars'" pragma. Don't lexicalize them with
"my $a" or "my $b" if you want to be able to use them in the "sort()" comparison
block or function.
%ENV The hash %ENV contains your current environment. Setting a value in "ENV" changes
the environment for any child processes you subsequently "fork()" off.
As of v5.18.0, both keys and values stored in %ENV are stringified.
my $foo = 1;
$ENV{'bar'} = \$foo;
if( ref $ENV{'bar'} ) {
say "Pre 5.18.0 Behaviour";
} else {
say "Post 5.18.0 Behaviour";
}
Previously, only child processes received stringified values:
my $foo = 1;
$ENV{'bar'} = \$foo;
# Always printed 'non ref'
system($^X, '-e',
q/print ( ref $ENV{'bar'} ? 'ref' : 'non ref' ) /);
This happens because you can't really share arbitrary data structures with foreign
processes.
$OLD_PERL_VERSION
$] The revision, version, and subversion of the Perl interpreter, represented as a
decimal of the form 5.XXXYYY, where XXX is the version / 1e3 and YYY is the
subversion / 1e6. For example, Perl v5.10.1 would be "5.010001".
This variable can be used to determine whether the Perl interpreter executing a
script is in the right range of versions:
warn "No PerlIO!\n" if "$]" < 5.008;
When comparing $], numeric comparison operators should be used, but the variable
should be stringified first to avoid issues where its original numeric value is
inaccurate.
See also the documentation of "use VERSION" and "require VERSION" for a convenient
way to fail if the running Perl interpreter is too old.
See "$^V" for a representation of the Perl version as a version object, which
allows more flexible string comparisons.
The main advantage of $] over $^V is that it works the same on any version of
Perl. The disadvantages are that it can't easily be compared to versions in other
formats (e.g. literal v-strings, "v1.2.3" or version objects) and numeric
comparisons are subject to the binary floating point representation; it's good for
numeric literal version checks and bad for comparing to a variable that hasn't
been sanity-checked.
The $OLD_PERL_VERSION form was added in Perl v5.20.0 for historical reasons but
its use is discouraged. (If your reason to use $] is to run code on old perls then
referring to it as $OLD_PERL_VERSION would be self-defeating.)
Mnemonic: Is this version of perl in the right bracket?
$SYSTEM_FD_MAX
$^F The maximum system file descriptor, ordinarily 2. System file descriptors are
passed to "exec()"ed processes, while higher file descriptors are not. Also,
during an "open()", system file descriptors are preserved even if the "open()"
fails (ordinary file descriptors are closed before the "open()" is attempted).
The close-on-exec status of a file descriptor will be decided according to the
value of $^F when the corresponding file, pipe, or socket was opened, not the time
of the "exec()".
@F The array @F contains the fields of each line read in when autosplit mode is
turned on. See perlrun for the -a switch. This array is package-specific, and
must be declared or given a full package name if not in package main when running
under "strict 'vars'".
@INC The array @INC contains the list of places that the "do EXPR", "require", or "use"
constructs look for their library files. It initially consists of the arguments
to any -I command-line switches, followed by the default Perl library, probably
/usr/local/lib/perl. Prior to Perl 5.26, "." -which represents the current
directory, was included in @INC; it has been removed. This change in behavior is
documented in "PERL_USE_UNSAFE_INC" and it is not recommended that "." be re-added
to @INC. If you need to modify @INC at runtime, you should use the "use lib"
pragma to get the machine-dependent library properly loaded as well:
use lib '/mypath/libdir/';
use SomeMod;
You can also insert hooks into the file inclusion system by putting Perl code
directly into @INC. Those hooks may be subroutine references, array references or
blessed objects. See "require" in perlfunc for details.
%INC The hash %INC contains entries for each filename included via the "do", "require",
or "use" operators. The key is the filename you specified (with module names
converted to pathnames), and the value is the location of the file found. The
"require" operator uses this hash to determine whether a particular file has
already been included.
If the file was loaded via a hook (e.g. a subroutine reference, see "require" in
perlfunc for a description of these hooks), this hook is by default inserted into
%INC in place of a filename. Note, however, that the hook may have set the %INC
entry by itself to provide some more specific info.
$INPLACE_EDIT
$^I The current value of the inplace-edit extension. Use "undef" to disable inplace
editing.
Mnemonic: value of -i switch.
@ISA Each package contains a special array called @ISA which contains a list of that
class's parent classes, if any. This array is simply a list of scalars, each of
which is a string that corresponds to a package name. The array is examined when
Perl does method resolution, which is covered in perlobj.
To load packages while adding them to @ISA, see the parent pragma. The discouraged
base pragma does this as well, but should not be used except when compatibility
with the discouraged fields pragma is required.
$^M By default, running out of memory is an untrappable, fatal error. However, if
suitably built, Perl can use the contents of $^M as an emergency memory pool after
"die()"ing. Suppose that your Perl were compiled with "-DPERL_EMERGENCY_SBRK" and
used Perl's malloc. Then
$^M = 'a' x (1 << 16);
would allocate a 64K buffer for use in an emergency. See the INSTALL file in the
Perl distribution for information on how to add custom C compilation flags when
compiling perl. To discourage casual use of this advanced feature, there is no
English long name for this variable.
This variable was added in Perl 5.004.
$OSNAME
$^O The name of the operating system under which this copy of Perl was built, as
determined during the configuration process. For examples see "PLATFORMS" in
perlport.
The value is identical to $Config{'osname'}. See also Config and the -V command-
line switch documented in perlrun.
In Windows platforms, $^O is not very helpful: since it is always "MSWin32", it
doesn't tell the difference between 95/98/ME/NT/2000/XP/CE/.NET. Use
"Win32::GetOSName()" or Win32::GetOSVersion() (see Win32 and perlport) to
distinguish between the variants.
This variable was added in Perl 5.003.
%SIG The hash %SIG contains signal handlers for signals. For example:
sub handler { # 1st argument is signal name
my($sig) = @_;
print "Caught a SIG$sig--shutting down\n";
close(LOG);
exit(0);
}
$SIG{'INT'} = \&handler;
$SIG{'QUIT'} = \&handler;
...
$SIG{'INT'} = 'DEFAULT'; # restore default action
$SIG{'QUIT'} = 'IGNORE'; # ignore SIGQUIT
Using a value of 'IGNORE' usually has the effect of ignoring the signal, except
for the "CHLD" signal. See perlipc for more about this special case. Using an
empty string or "undef" as the value has the same effect as 'DEFAULT'.
Here are some other examples:
$SIG{"PIPE"} = "Plumber"; # assumes main::Plumber (not
# recommended)
$SIG{"PIPE"} = \&Plumber; # just fine; assume current
# Plumber
$SIG{"PIPE"} = *Plumber; # somewhat esoteric
$SIG{"PIPE"} = Plumber(); # oops, what did Plumber()
# return??
Be sure not to use a bareword as the name of a signal handler, lest you
inadvertently call it.
Using a string that doesn't correspond to any existing function or a glob that
doesn't contain a code slot is equivalent to 'IGNORE', but a warning is emitted
when the handler is being called (the warning is not emitted for the internal
hooks described below).
If your system has the "sigaction()" function then signal handlers are installed
using it. This means you get reliable signal handling.
The default delivery policy of signals changed in Perl v5.8.0 from immediate (also
known as "unsafe") to deferred, also known as "safe signals". See perlipc for
more information.
Certain internal hooks can be also set using the %SIG hash. The routine indicated
by $SIG{__WARN__} is called when a warning message is about to be printed. The
warning message is passed as the first argument. The presence of a "__WARN__"
hook causes the ordinary printing of warnings to "STDERR" to be suppressed. You
can use this to save warnings in a variable, or turn warnings into fatal errors,
like this:
local $SIG{__WARN__} = sub { die $_[0] };
eval $proggie;
As the 'IGNORE' hook is not supported by "__WARN__", its effect is the same as
using 'DEFAULT'. You can disable warnings using the empty subroutine:
local $SIG{__WARN__} = sub {};
The routine indicated by $SIG{__DIE__} is called when a fatal exception is about
to be thrown. The error message is passed as the first argument. When a
"__DIE__" hook routine returns, the exception processing continues as it would
have in the absence of the hook, unless the hook routine itself exits via a "goto
&sub", a loop exit, or a "die()". The "__DIE__" handler is explicitly disabled
during the call, so that you can die from a "__DIE__" handler. Similarly for
"__WARN__".
The $SIG{__DIE__} hook is called even inside an "eval()". It was never intended to
happen this way, but an implementation glitch made this possible. This used to be
deprecated, as it allowed strange action at a distance like rewriting a pending
exception in $@. Plans to rectify this have been scrapped, as users found that
rewriting a pending exception is actually a useful feature, and not a bug.
The $SIG{__DIE__} doesn't support 'IGNORE'; it has the same effect as 'DEFAULT'.
"__DIE__"/"__WARN__" handlers are very special in one respect: they may be called
to report (probable) errors found by the parser. In such a case the parser may be
in inconsistent state, so any attempt to evaluate Perl code from such a handler
will probably result in a segfault. This means that warnings or errors that
result from parsing Perl should be used with extreme caution, like this:
require Carp if defined $^S;
Carp::confess("Something wrong") if defined &Carp::confess;
die "Something wrong, but could not load Carp to give "
. "backtrace...\n\t"
. "To see backtrace try starting Perl with -MCarp switch";
Here the first line will load "Carp" unless it is the parser who called the
handler. The second line will print backtrace and die if "Carp" was available.
The third line will be executed only if "Carp" was not available.
Having to even think about the $^S variable in your exception handlers is simply
wrong. $SIG{__DIE__} as currently implemented invites grievous and difficult to
track down errors. Avoid it and use an "END{}" or CORE::GLOBAL::die override
instead.
See "die" in perlfunc, "warn" in perlfunc, "eval" in perlfunc, and warnings for
additional information.
$BASETIME
$^T The time at which the program began running, in seconds since the epoch (beginning
of 1970). The values returned by the -M, -A, and -C filetests are based on this
value.
$PERL_VERSION
$^V The revision, version, and subversion of the Perl interpreter, represented as a
version object.
This variable first appeared in perl v5.6.0; earlier versions of perl will see an
undefined value. Before perl v5.10.0 $^V was represented as a v-string rather
than a version object.
$^V can be used to determine whether the Perl interpreter executing a script is in
the right range of versions. For example:
warn "Hashes not randomized!\n" if !$^V or $^V lt v5.8.1
While version objects overload stringification, to portably convert $^V into its
string representation, use "sprintf()"'s "%vd" conversion, which works for both
v-strings or version objects:
printf "version is v%vd\n", $^V; # Perl's version
See the documentation of "use VERSION" and "require VERSION" for a convenient way
to fail if the running Perl interpreter is too old.
See also "$]" for a decimal representation of the Perl version.
The main advantage of $^V over $] is that, for Perl v5.10.0 or later, it overloads
operators, allowing easy comparison against other version representations (e.g.
decimal, literal v-string, "v1.2.3", or objects). The disadvantage is that prior
to v5.10.0, it was only a literal v-string, which can't be easily printed or
compared, whereas the behavior of $] is unchanged on all versions of Perl.
Mnemonic: use ^V for a version object.
$EXECUTABLE_NAME
$^X The name used to execute the current copy of Perl, from C's "argv[0]" or (where
supported) /proc/self/exe.
Depending on the host operating system, the value of $^X may be a relative or
absolute pathname of the perl program file, or may be the string used to invoke
perl but not the pathname of the perl program file. Also, most operating systems
permit invoking programs that are not in the PATH environment variable, so there
is no guarantee that the value of $^X is in PATH. For VMS, the value may or may
not include a version number.
You usually can use the value of $^X to re-invoke an independent copy of the same
perl that is currently running, e.g.,
@first_run = `$^X -le "print int rand 100 for 1..100"`;
But recall that not all operating systems support forking or capturing of the
output of commands, so this complex statement may not be portable.
It is not safe to use the value of $^X as a path name of a file, as some operating
systems that have a mandatory suffix on executable files do not require use of the
suffix when invoking a command. To convert the value of $^X to a path name, use
the following statements:
# Build up a set of file names (not command names).
use Config;
my $this_perl = $^X;
if ($^O ne 'VMS') {
$this_perl .= $Config{_exe}
unless $this_perl =~ m/$Config{_exe}$/i;
}
Because many operating systems permit anyone with read access to the Perl program
file to make a copy of it, patch the copy, and then execute the copy, the
security-conscious Perl programmer should take care to invoke the installed copy
of perl, not the copy referenced by $^X. The following statements accomplish this
goal, and produce a pathname that can be invoked as a command or referenced as a
file.
use Config;
my $secure_perl_path = $Config{perlpath};
if ($^O ne 'VMS') {
$secure_perl_path .= $Config{_exe}
unless $secure_perl_path =~ m/$Config{_exe}$/i;
}
Variables related to regular expressions
Most of the special variables related to regular expressions are side effects. Perl sets
these variables when it has a successful match, so you should check the match result
before using them. For instance:
if( /P(A)TT(ER)N/ ) {
print "I found $1 and $2\n";
}
These variables are read-only and dynamically-scoped, unless we note otherwise.
The dynamic nature of the regular expression variables means that their value is limited
to the block that they are in, as demonstrated by this bit of code:
my $outer = 'Wallace and Grommit';
my $inner = 'Mutt and Jeff';
my $pattern = qr/(\S+) and (\S+)/;
sub show_n { print "\$1 is $1; \$2 is $2\n" }
{
OUTER:
show_n() if $outer =~ m/$pattern/;
INNER: {
show_n() if $inner =~ m/$pattern/;
}
show_n();
}
The output shows that while in the "OUTER" block, the values of $1 and $2 are from the
match against $outer. Inside the "INNER" block, the values of $1 and $2 are from the
match against $inner, but only until the end of the block (i.e. the dynamic scope). After
the "INNER" block completes, the values of $1 and $2 return to the values for the match
against $outer even though we have not made another match:
$1 is Wallace; $2 is Grommit
$1 is Mutt; $2 is Jeff
$1 is Wallace; $2 is Grommit
Performance issues
Traditionally in Perl, any use of any of the three variables "$`", $& or "$'" (or their
"use English" equivalents) anywhere in the code, caused all subsequent successful pattern
matches to make a copy of the matched string, in case the code might subsequently access
one of those variables. This imposed a considerable performance penalty across the whole
program, so generally the use of these variables has been discouraged.
In Perl 5.6.0 the "@-" and "@+" dynamic arrays were introduced that supply the indices of
successful matches. So you could for example do this:
$str =~ /pattern/;
print $`, $&, $'; # bad: performance hit
print # good: no performance hit
substr($str, 0, $-[0]),
substr($str, $-[0], $+[0]-$-[0]),
substr($str, $+[0]);
In Perl 5.10.0 the "/p" match operator flag and the "${^PREMATCH}", "${^MATCH}", and
"${^POSTMATCH}" variables were introduced, that allowed you to suffer the penalties only
on patterns marked with "/p".
In Perl 5.18.0 onwards, perl started noting the presence of each of the three variables
separately, and only copied that part of the string required; so in
$`; $&; "abcdefgh" =~ /d/
perl would only copy the "abcd" part of the string. That could make a big difference in
something like
$str = 'x' x 1_000_000;
$&; # whoops
$str =~ /x/g # one char copied a million times, not a million chars
In Perl 5.20.0 a new copy-on-write system was enabled by default, which finally fixes all
performance issues with these three variables, and makes them safe to use anywhere.
The "Devel::NYTProf" and "Devel::FindAmpersand" modules can help you find uses of these
problematic match variables in your code.
$<digits> ($1, $2, ...)
Contains the subpattern from the corresponding set of capturing parentheses from
the last successful pattern match, not counting patterns matched in nested blocks
that have been exited already.
Note there is a distinction between a capture buffer which matches the empty
string a capture buffer which is optional. Eg, "(x?)" and "(x)?" The latter may be
undef, the former not.
These variables are read-only and dynamically-scoped.
Mnemonic: like \digits.
@{^CAPTURE}
An array which exposes the contents of the capture buffers, if any, of the last
successful pattern match, not counting patterns matched in nested blocks that have
been exited already.
Note that the 0 index of @{^CAPTURE} is equivalent to $1, the 1 index is
equivalent to $2, etc.
if ("foal"=~/(.)(.)(.)(.)/) {
print join "-", @{^CAPTURE};
}
should output "f-o-a-l".
See also "$<digits> ($1, $2, ...)", "%{^CAPTURE}" and "%{^CAPTURE_ALL}".
Note that unlike most other regex magic variables there is no single letter
equivalent to "@{^CAPTURE}". Also be aware that when interpolating subscripts of
this array you must use the demarcated variable form, for instance
print "${^CAPTURE[0]}"
see "Demarcated variable names using braces" in perldata for more information on
this form and its uses.
This variable was added in 5.25.7
$MATCH
$& The string matched by the last successful pattern match (not counting any matches
hidden within a BLOCK or "eval()" enclosed by the current BLOCK).
See "Performance issues" above for the serious performance implications of using
this variable (even once) in your code.
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
Mnemonic: like "&" in some editors.
${^MATCH}
This is similar to $& ($MATCH) except that it does not incur the performance
penalty associated with that variable.
See "Performance issues" above.
In Perl v5.18 and earlier, it is only guaranteed to return a defined value when
the pattern was compiled or executed with the "/p" modifier. In Perl v5.20, the
"/p" modifier does nothing, so "${^MATCH}" does the same thing as $MATCH.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0.
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
$PREMATCH
$` The string preceding whatever was matched by the last successful pattern match,
not counting any matches hidden within a BLOCK or "eval" enclosed by the current
BLOCK.
See "Performance issues" above for the serious performance implications of using
this variable (even once) in your code.
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
Mnemonic: "`" often precedes a quoted string.
${^PREMATCH}
This is similar to "$`" ($PREMATCH) except that it does not incur the performance
penalty associated with that variable.
See "Performance issues" above.
In Perl v5.18 and earlier, it is only guaranteed to return a defined value when
the pattern was compiled or executed with the "/p" modifier. In Perl v5.20, the
"/p" modifier does nothing, so "${^PREMATCH}" does the same thing as $PREMATCH.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0.
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
$POSTMATCH
$' The string following whatever was matched by the last successful pattern match
(not counting any matches hidden within a BLOCK or "eval()" enclosed by the
current BLOCK). Example:
local $_ = 'abcdefghi';
/def/;
print "$`:$&:$'\n"; # prints abc:def:ghi
See "Performance issues" above for the serious performance implications of using
this variable (even once) in your code.
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
Mnemonic: "'" often follows a quoted string.
${^POSTMATCH}
This is similar to "$'" ($POSTMATCH) except that it does not incur the performance
penalty associated with that variable.
See "Performance issues" above.
In Perl v5.18 and earlier, it is only guaranteed to return a defined value when
the pattern was compiled or executed with the "/p" modifier. In Perl v5.20, the
"/p" modifier does nothing, so "${^POSTMATCH}" does the same thing as $POSTMATCH.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0.
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
$LAST_PAREN_MATCH
$+ The text matched by the highest used capture group of the last successful search
pattern. It is logically equivalent to the highest numbered capture variable ($1,
$2, ...) which has a defined value.
This is useful if you don't know which one of a set of alternative patterns
matched. For example:
/Version: (.*)|Revision: (.*)/ && ($rev = $+);
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
Mnemonic: be positive and forward looking.
$LAST_SUBMATCH_RESULT
$^N The text matched by the used group most-recently closed (i.e. the group with the
rightmost closing parenthesis) of the last successful search pattern. This is
subtly different from $+. For example in
"ab" =~ /^((.)(.))$/
we have
$1,$^N have the value "ab"
$2 has the value "a"
$3,$+ have the value "b"
This is primarily used inside "(?{...})" blocks for examining text recently
matched. For example, to effectively capture text to a variable (in addition to
$1, $2, etc.), replace "(...)" with
(?:(...)(?{ $var = $^N }))
By setting and then using $var in this way relieves you from having to worry about
exactly which numbered set of parentheses they are.
This variable was added in Perl v5.8.0.
Mnemonic: the (possibly) Nested parenthesis that most recently closed.
@LAST_MATCH_END
@+ This array holds the offsets of the ends of the last successful submatches in the
currently active dynamic scope. $+[0] is the offset into the string of the end of
the entire match. This is the same value as what the "pos" function returns when
called on the variable that was matched against. The nth element of this array
holds the offset of the nth submatch, so $+[1] is the offset past where $1 ends,
$+[2] the offset past where $2 ends, and so on. You can use $#+ to determine how
many subgroups were in the last successful match. See the examples given for the
"@-" variable.
This variable was added in Perl v5.6.0.
%{^CAPTURE}
%LAST_PAREN_MATCH
%+ Similar to "@+", the "%+" hash allows access to the named capture buffers, should
they exist, in the last successful match in the currently active dynamic scope.
For example, $+{foo} is equivalent to $1 after the following match:
'foo' =~ /(?<foo>foo)/;
The keys of the "%+" hash list only the names of buffers that have captured (and
that are thus associated to defined values).
If multiple distinct capture groups have the same name, then $+{NAME} will refer
to the leftmost defined group in the match.
The underlying behaviour of "%+" is provided by the Tie::Hash::NamedCapture
module.
Note: "%-" and "%+" are tied views into a common internal hash associated with the
last successful regular expression. Therefore mixing iterative access to them via
"each" may have unpredictable results. Likewise, if the last successful match
changes, then the results may be surprising.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0. The "%{^CAPTURE}" alias was added in
5.25.7.
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
@LAST_MATCH_START
@- "$-[0]" is the offset of the start of the last successful match. "$-[n]" is the
offset of the start of the substring matched by n-th subpattern, or undef if the
subpattern did not match.
Thus, after a match against $_, $& coincides with "substr $_, $-[0], $+[0] -
$-[0]". Similarly, $n coincides with "substr $_, $-[n], $+[n] - $-[n]" if "$-[n]"
is defined, and $+ coincides with "substr $_, $-[$#-], $+[$#-] - $-[$#-]". One
can use "$#-" to find the last matched subgroup in the last successful match.
Contrast with $#+, the number of subgroups in the regular expression. Compare
with "@+".
This array holds the offsets of the beginnings of the last successful submatches
in the currently active dynamic scope. "$-[0]" is the offset into the string of
the beginning of the entire match. The nth element of this array holds the offset
of the nth submatch, so "$-[1]" is the offset where $1 begins, "$-[2]" the offset
where $2 begins, and so on.
After a match against some variable $var:
"$`" is the same as "substr($var, 0, $-[0])"
$& is the same as "substr($var, $-[0], $+[0] - $-[0])"
"$'" is the same as "substr($var, $+[0])"
$1 is the same as "substr($var, $-[1], $+[1] - $-[1])"
$2 is the same as "substr($var, $-[2], $+[2] - $-[2])"
$3 is the same as "substr($var, $-[3], $+[3] - $-[3])"
This variable was added in Perl v5.6.0.
%{^CAPTURE_ALL}
%- Similar to "%+", this variable allows access to the named capture groups in the
last successful match in the currently active dynamic scope. To each capture
group name found in the regular expression, it associates a reference to an array
containing the list of values captured by all buffers with that name (should there
be several of them), in the order where they appear.
Here's an example:
if ('1234' =~ /(?<A>1)(?<B>2)(?<A>3)(?<B>4)/) {
foreach my $bufname (sort keys %-) {
my $ary = $-{$bufname};
foreach my $idx (0..$#$ary) {
print "\$-{$bufname}[$idx] : ",
(defined($ary->[$idx])
? "'$ary->[$idx]'"
: "undef"),
"\n";
}
}
}
would print out:
$-{A}[0] : '1'
$-{A}[1] : '3'
$-{B}[0] : '2'
$-{B}[1] : '4'
The keys of the "%-" hash correspond to all buffer names found in the regular
expression.
The behaviour of "%-" is implemented via the Tie::Hash::NamedCapture module.
Note: "%-" and "%+" are tied views into a common internal hash associated with the
last successful regular expression. Therefore mixing iterative access to them via
"each" may have unpredictable results. Likewise, if the last successful match
changes, then the results may be surprising.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0. The "%{^CAPTURE_ALL}" alias was added in
5.25.7.
This variable is read-only and dynamically-scoped.
$LAST_REGEXP_CODE_RESULT
$^R The result of evaluation of the last successful "(?{ code })" regular expression
assertion (see perlre). May be written to.
This variable was added in Perl 5.005.
${^RE_COMPILE_RECURSION_LIMIT}
The current value giving the maximum number of open but unclosed parenthetical
groups there may be at any point during a regular expression compilation. The
default is currently 1000 nested groups. You may adjust it depending on your
needs and the amount of memory available.
This variable was added in Perl v5.30.0.
${^RE_DEBUG_FLAGS}
The current value of the regex debugging flags. Set to 0 for no debug output even
when the "re 'debug'" module is loaded. See re for details.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0.
${^RE_TRIE_MAXBUF}
Controls how certain regex optimisations are applied and how much memory they
utilize. This value by default is 65536 which corresponds to a 512kB temporary
cache. Set this to a higher value to trade memory for speed when matching large
alternations. Set it to a lower value if you want the optimisations to be as
conservative of memory as possible but still occur, and set it to a negative value
to prevent the optimisation and conserve the most memory. Under normal situations
this variable should be of no interest to you.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0.
Variables related to filehandles
Variables that depend on the currently selected filehandle may be set by calling an
appropriate object method on the "IO::Handle" object, although this is less efficient than
using the regular built-in variables. (Summary lines below for this contain the word
HANDLE.) First you must say
use IO::Handle;
after which you may use either
method HANDLE EXPR
or more safely,
HANDLE->method(EXPR)
Each method returns the old value of the "IO::Handle" attribute. The methods each take an
optional EXPR, which, if supplied, specifies the new value for the "IO::Handle" attribute
in question. If not supplied, most methods do nothing to the current value--except for
"autoflush()", which will assume a 1 for you, just to be different.
Because loading in the "IO::Handle" class is an expensive operation, you should learn how
to use the regular built-in variables.
A few of these variables are considered "read-only". This means that if you try to assign
to this variable, either directly or indirectly through a reference, you'll raise a run-
time exception.
You should be very careful when modifying the default values of most special variables
described in this document. In most cases you want to localize these variables before
changing them, since if you don't, the change may affect other modules which rely on the
default values of the special variables that you have changed. This is one of the correct
ways to read the whole file at once:
open my $fh, "<", "foo" or die $!;
local $/; # enable localized slurp mode
my $content = <$fh>;
close $fh;
But the following code is quite bad:
open my $fh, "<", "foo" or die $!;
undef $/; # enable slurp mode
my $content = <$fh>;
close $fh;
since some other module, may want to read data from some file in the default "line mode",
so if the code we have just presented has been executed, the global value of $/ is now
changed for any other code running inside the same Perl interpreter.
Usually when a variable is localized you want to make sure that this change affects the
shortest scope possible. So unless you are already inside some short "{}" block, you
should create one yourself. For example:
my $content = '';
open my $fh, "<", "foo" or die $!;
{
local $/;
$content = <$fh>;
}
close $fh;
Here is an example of how your own code can go broken:
for ( 1..3 ){
$\ = "\r\n";
nasty_break();
print "$_";
}
sub nasty_break {
$\ = "\f";
# do something with $_
}
You probably expect this code to print the equivalent of
"1\r\n2\r\n3\r\n"
but instead you get:
"1\f2\f3\f"
Why? Because "nasty_break()" modifies "$\" without localizing it first. The value you set
in "nasty_break()" is still there when you return. The fix is to add "local()" so the
value doesn't leak out of "nasty_break()":
local $\ = "\f";
It's easy to notice the problem in such a short example, but in more complicated code you
are looking for trouble if you don't localize changes to the special variables.
$ARGV Contains the name of the current file when reading from "<>".
@ARGV The array @ARGV contains the command-line arguments intended for the script.
$#ARGV is generally the number of arguments minus one, because $ARGV[0] is the
first argument, not the program's command name itself. See "$0" for the command
name.
ARGV The special filehandle that iterates over command-line filenames in @ARGV.
Usually written as the null filehandle in the angle operator "<>". Note that
currently "ARGV" only has its magical effect within the "<>" operator; elsewhere
it is just a plain filehandle corresponding to the last file opened by "<>". In
particular, passing "\*ARGV" as a parameter to a function that expects a
filehandle may not cause your function to automatically read the contents of all
the files in @ARGV.
ARGVOUT The special filehandle that points to the currently open output file when doing
edit-in-place processing with -i. Useful when you have to do a lot of inserting
and don't want to keep modifying $_. See perlrun for the -i switch.
IO::Handle->output_field_separator( EXPR )
$OUTPUT_FIELD_SEPARATOR
$OFS
$, The output field separator for the print operator. If defined, this value is
printed between each of print's arguments. Default is "undef".
You cannot call "output_field_separator()" on a handle, only as a static method.
See IO::Handle.
Mnemonic: what is printed when there is a "," in your print statement.
HANDLE->input_line_number( EXPR )
$INPUT_LINE_NUMBER
$NR
$. Current line number for the last filehandle accessed.
Each filehandle in Perl counts the number of lines that have been read from it.
(Depending on the value of $/, Perl's idea of what constitutes a line may not
match yours.) When a line is read from a filehandle (via "readline()" or "<>"),
or when "tell()" or "seek()" is called on it, $. becomes an alias to the line
counter for that filehandle.
You can adjust the counter by assigning to $., but this will not actually move the
seek pointer. Localizing $. will not localize the filehandle's line count.
Instead, it will localize perl's notion of which filehandle $. is currently
aliased to.
$. is reset when the filehandle is closed, but not when an open filehandle is
reopened without an intervening "close()". For more details, see "I/O Operators"
in perlop. Because "<>" never does an explicit close, line numbers increase
across "ARGV" files (but see examples in "eof" in perlfunc).
You can also use "HANDLE->input_line_number(EXPR)" to access the line counter for
a given filehandle without having to worry about which handle you last accessed.
Mnemonic: many programs use "." to mean the current line number.
IO::Handle->input_record_separator( EXPR )
$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR
$RS
$/ The input record separator, newline by default. This influences Perl's idea of
what a "line" is. Works like awk's RS variable, including treating empty lines as
a terminator if set to the null string (an empty line cannot contain any spaces or
tabs). You may set it to a multi-character string to match a multi-character
terminator, or to "undef" to read through the end of file. Setting it to "\n\n"
means something slightly different than setting to "", if the file contains
consecutive empty lines. Setting to "" will treat two or more consecutive empty
lines as a single empty line. Setting to "\n\n" will blindly assume that the next
input character belongs to the next paragraph, even if it's a newline.
local $/; # enable "slurp" mode
local $_ = <FH>; # whole file now here
s/\n[ \t]+/ /g;
Remember: the value of $/ is a string, not a regex. awk has to be better for
something. :-)
Setting $/ to an empty string -- the so-called paragraph mode -- merits special
attention. When $/ is set to "" and the entire file is read in with that setting,
any sequence of one or more consecutive newlines at the beginning of the file is
discarded. With the exception of the final record in the file, each sequence of
characters ending in two or more newlines is treated as one record and is read in
to end in exactly two newlines. If the last record in the file ends in zero or
one consecutive newlines, that record is read in with that number of newlines. If
the last record ends in two or more consecutive newlines, it is read in with two
newlines like all preceding records.
Suppose we wrote the following string to a file:
my $string = "\n\n\n";
$string .= "alpha beta\ngamma delta\n\n\n";
$string .= "epsilon zeta eta\n\n";
$string .= "theta\n";
my $file = 'simple_file.txt';
open my $OUT, '>', $file or die;
print $OUT $string;
close $OUT or die;
Now we read that file in paragraph mode:
local $/ = ""; # paragraph mode
open my $IN, '<', $file or die;
my @records = <$IN>;
close $IN or die;
@records will consist of these 3 strings:
(
"alpha beta\ngamma delta\n\n",
"epsilon zeta eta\n\n",
"theta\n",
)
Setting $/ to a reference to an integer, scalar containing an integer, or scalar
that's convertible to an integer will attempt to read records instead of lines,
with the maximum record size being the referenced integer number of characters.
So this:
local $/ = \32768; # or \"32768", or \$var_containing_32768
open my $fh, "<", $myfile or die $!;
local $_ = <$fh>;
will read a record of no more than 32768 characters from $fh. If you're not
reading from a record-oriented file (or your OS doesn't have record-oriented
files), then you'll likely get a full chunk of data with every read. If a record
is larger than the record size you've set, you'll get the record back in pieces.
Trying to set the record size to zero or less is deprecated and will cause $/ to
have the value of "undef", which will cause reading in the (rest of the) whole
file.
As of 5.19.9 setting $/ to any other form of reference will throw a fatal
exception. This is in preparation for supporting new ways to set $/ in the future.
On VMS only, record reads bypass PerlIO layers and any associated buffering, so
you must not mix record and non-record reads on the same filehandle. Record mode
mixes with line mode only when the same buffering layer is in use for both modes.
You cannot call "input_record_separator()" on a handle, only as a static method.
See IO::Handle.
See also "Newlines" in perlport. Also see "$.".
Mnemonic: / delimits line boundaries when quoting poetry.
IO::Handle->output_record_separator( EXPR )
$OUTPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR
$ORS
$\ The output record separator for the print operator. If defined, this value is
printed after the last of print's arguments. Default is "undef".
You cannot call "output_record_separator()" on a handle, only as a static method.
See IO::Handle.
Mnemonic: you set "$\" instead of adding "\n" at the end of the print. Also, it's
just like $/, but it's what you get "back" from Perl.
HANDLE->autoflush( EXPR )
$OUTPUT_AUTOFLUSH
$| If set to nonzero, forces a flush right away and after every write or print on the
currently selected output channel. Default is 0 (regardless of whether the
channel is really buffered by the system or not; $| tells you only whether you've
asked Perl explicitly to flush after each write). STDOUT will typically be line
buffered if output is to the terminal and block buffered otherwise. Setting this
variable is useful primarily when you are outputting to a pipe or socket, such as
when you are running a Perl program under rsh and want to see the output as it's
happening. This has no effect on input buffering. See "getc" in perlfunc for
that. See "select" in perlfunc on how to select the output channel. See also
IO::Handle.
Mnemonic: when you want your pipes to be piping hot.
${^LAST_FH}
This read-only variable contains a reference to the last-read filehandle. This is
set by "<HANDLE>", "readline", "tell", "eof" and "seek". This is the same handle
that $. and "tell" and "eof" without arguments use. It is also the handle used
when Perl appends ", <STDIN> line 1" to an error or warning message.
This variable was added in Perl v5.18.0.
Variables related to formats
The special variables for formats are a subset of those for filehandles. See perlform for
more information about Perl's formats.
$ACCUMULATOR
$^A The current value of the "write()" accumulator for "format()" lines. A format
contains "formline()" calls that put their result into $^A. After calling its
format, "write()" prints out the contents of $^A and empties. So you never really
see the contents of $^A unless you call "formline()" yourself and then look at it.
See perlform and "formline PICTURE,LIST" in perlfunc.
IO::Handle->format_formfeed(EXPR)
$FORMAT_FORMFEED
$^L What formats output as a form feed. The default is "\f".
You cannot call "format_formfeed()" on a handle, only as a static method. See
IO::Handle.
HANDLE->format_page_number(EXPR)
$FORMAT_PAGE_NUMBER
$% The current page number of the currently selected output channel.
Mnemonic: "%" is page number in nroff.
HANDLE->format_lines_left(EXPR)
$FORMAT_LINES_LEFT
$- The number of lines left on the page of the currently selected output channel.
Mnemonic: lines_on_page - lines_printed.
IO::Handle->format_line_break_characters EXPR
$FORMAT_LINE_BREAK_CHARACTERS
$: The current set of characters after which a string may be broken to fill
continuation fields (starting with "^") in a format. The default is " \n-", to
break on a space, newline, or a hyphen.
You cannot call "format_line_break_characters()" on a handle, only as a static
method. See IO::Handle.
Mnemonic: a "colon" in poetry is a part of a line.
HANDLE->format_lines_per_page(EXPR)
$FORMAT_LINES_PER_PAGE
$= The current page length (printable lines) of the currently selected output
channel. The default is 60.
Mnemonic: = has horizontal lines.
HANDLE->format_top_name(EXPR)
$FORMAT_TOP_NAME
$^ The name of the current top-of-page format for the currently selected output
channel. The default is the name of the filehandle with "_TOP" appended. For
example, the default format top name for the "STDOUT" filehandle is "STDOUT_TOP".
Mnemonic: points to top of page.
HANDLE->format_name(EXPR)
$FORMAT_NAME
$~ The name of the current report format for the currently selected output channel.
The default format name is the same as the filehandle name. For example, the
default format name for the "STDOUT" filehandle is just "STDOUT".
Mnemonic: brother to $^.
Error Variables
The variables $@, $!, $^E, and $? contain information about different types of error
conditions that may appear during execution of a Perl program. The variables are shown
ordered by the "distance" between the subsystem which reported the error and the Perl
process. They correspond to errors detected by the Perl interpreter, C library, operating
system, or an external program, respectively.
To illustrate the differences between these variables, consider the following Perl
expression, which uses a single-quoted string. After execution of this statement, perl
may have set all four special error variables:
eval q{
open my $pipe, "/cdrom/install |" or die $!;
my @res = <$pipe>;
close $pipe or die "bad pipe: $?, $!";
};
When perl executes the "eval()" expression, it translates the "open()", "<PIPE>", and
"close" calls in the C run-time library and thence to the operating system kernel. perl
sets $! to the C library's "errno" if one of these calls fails.
$@ is set if the string to be "eval"-ed did not compile (this may happen if "open" or
"close" were imported with bad prototypes), or if Perl code executed during evaluation
"die()"d. In these cases the value of $@ is the compile error, or the argument to "die"
(which will interpolate $! and $?). (See also Fatal, though.)
Under a few operating systems, $^E may contain a more verbose error indicator, such as in
this case, "CDROM tray not closed." Systems that do not support extended error messages
leave $^E the same as $!.
Finally, $? may be set to a non-0 value if the external program /cdrom/install fails. The
upper eight bits reflect specific error conditions encountered by the program (the
program's "exit()" value). The lower eight bits reflect mode of failure, like signal
death and core dump information. See wait(2) for details. In contrast to $! and $^E,
which are set only if an error condition is detected, the variable $? is set on each
"wait" or pipe "close", overwriting the old value. This is more like $@, which on every
"eval()" is always set on failure and cleared on success.
For more details, see the individual descriptions at $@, $!, $^E, and $?.
${^CHILD_ERROR_NATIVE}
The native status returned by the last pipe close, backtick ("``") command,
successful call to "wait()" or "waitpid()", or from the "system()" operator. On
POSIX-like systems this value can be decoded with the WIFEXITED, WEXITSTATUS,
WIFSIGNALED, WTERMSIG, WIFSTOPPED, and WSTOPSIG functions provided by the POSIX
module.
Under VMS this reflects the actual VMS exit status; i.e. it is the same as $? when
the pragma "use vmsish 'status'" is in effect.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0.
$EXTENDED_OS_ERROR
$^E Error information specific to the current operating system. At the moment, this
differs from "$!" under only VMS, OS/2, and Win32 (and for MacPerl). On all other
platforms, $^E is always just the same as $!.
Under VMS, $^E provides the VMS status value from the last system error. This is
more specific information about the last system error than that provided by $!.
This is particularly important when $! is set to EVMSERR.
Under OS/2, $^E is set to the error code of the last call to OS/2 API either via
CRT, or directly from perl.
Under Win32, $^E always returns the last error information reported by the Win32
call "GetLastError()" which describes the last error from within the Win32 API.
Most Win32-specific code will report errors via $^E. ANSI C and Unix-like calls
set "errno" and so most portable Perl code will report errors via $!.
Caveats mentioned in the description of "$!" generally apply to $^E, also.
This variable was added in Perl 5.003.
Mnemonic: Extra error explanation.
$EXCEPTIONS_BEING_CAUGHT
$^S Current state of the interpreter.
$^S State
--------- -------------------------------------
undef Parsing module, eval, or main program
true (1) Executing an eval or try block
false (0) Otherwise
The first state may happen in $SIG{__DIE__} and $SIG{__WARN__} handlers.
The English name $EXCEPTIONS_BEING_CAUGHT is slightly misleading, because the
"undef" value does not indicate whether exceptions are being caught, since
compilation of the main program does not catch exceptions.
This variable was added in Perl 5.004.
$WARNING
$^W The current value of the warning switch, initially true if -w was used, false
otherwise, but directly modifiable.
See also warnings.
Mnemonic: related to the -w switch.
${^WARNING_BITS}
The current set of warning checks enabled by the "use warnings" pragma. It has
the same scoping as the $^H and "%^H" variables. The exact values are considered
internal to the warnings pragma and may change between versions of Perl.
Each time a statement completes being compiled, the current value of
"${^WARNING_BITS}" is stored with that statement, and can later be retrieved via
"(caller($level))[9]".
This variable was added in Perl v5.6.0.
$OS_ERROR
$ERRNO
$! When referenced, $! retrieves the current value of the C "errno" integer variable.
If $! is assigned a numerical value, that value is stored in "errno". When
referenced as a string, $! yields the system error string corresponding to
"errno".
Many system or library calls set "errno" if they fail, to indicate the cause of
failure. They usually do not set "errno" to zero if they succeed and may set
"errno" to a non-zero value on success. This means "errno", hence $!, is
meaningful only immediately after a failure:
if (open my $fh, "<", $filename) {
# Here $! is meaningless.
...
}
else {
# ONLY here is $! meaningful.
...
# Already here $! might be meaningless.
}
# Since here we might have either success or failure,
# $! is meaningless.
Here, meaningless means that $! may be unrelated to the outcome of the "open()"
operator. Assignment to $! is similarly ephemeral. It can be used immediately
before invoking the "die()" operator, to set the exit value, or to inspect the
system error string corresponding to error n, or to restore $! to a meaningful
state.
Perl itself may set "errno" to a non-zero on failure even if no system call is
performed.
Mnemonic: What just went bang?
%OS_ERROR
%ERRNO
%! Each element of "%!" has a true value only if $! is set to that value. For
example, $!{ENOENT} is true if and only if the current value of $! is "ENOENT";
that is, if the most recent error was "No such file or directory" (or its moral
equivalent: not all operating systems give that exact error, and certainly not all
languages). The specific true value is not guaranteed, but in the past has
generally been the numeric value of $!. To check if a particular key is
meaningful on your system, use "exists $!{the_key}"; for a list of legal keys, use
"keys %!". See Errno for more information, and also see "$!".
This variable was added in Perl 5.005.
$CHILD_ERROR
$? The status returned by the last pipe close, backtick ("``") command, successful
call to "wait()" or "waitpid()", or from the "system()" operator. This is just
the 16-bit status word returned by the traditional Unix "wait()" system call (or
else is made up to look like it). Thus, the exit value of the subprocess is
really ("$? >> 8"), and "$? & 127" gives which signal, if any, the process died
from, and "$? & 128" reports whether there was a core dump.
Additionally, if the "h_errno" variable is supported in C, its value is returned
via $? if any "gethost*()" function fails.
If you have installed a signal handler for "SIGCHLD", the value of $? will usually
be wrong outside that handler.
Inside an "END" subroutine $? contains the value that is going to be given to
"exit()". You can modify $? in an "END" subroutine to change the exit status of
your program. For example:
END {
$? = 1 if $? == 255; # die would make it 255
}
Under VMS, the pragma "use vmsish 'status'" makes $? reflect the actual VMS exit
status, instead of the default emulation of POSIX status; see "$?" in perlvms for
details.
Mnemonic: similar to sh and ksh.
$EVAL_ERROR
$@ The Perl error from the last "eval" operator, i.e. the last exception that was
caught. For "eval BLOCK", this is either a runtime error message or the string or
reference "die" was called with. The "eval STRING" form also catches syntax
errors and other compile time exceptions.
If no error occurs, "eval" sets $@ to the empty string.
Warning messages are not collected in this variable. You can, however, set up a
routine to process warnings by setting $SIG{__WARN__} as described in "%SIG".
Mnemonic: Where was the error "at"?
Variables related to the interpreter state
These variables provide information about the current interpreter state.
$COMPILING
$^C The current value of the flag associated with the -c switch. Mainly of use with
-MO=... to allow code to alter its behavior when being compiled, such as for
example to "AUTOLOAD" at compile time rather than normal, deferred loading.
Setting "$^C = 1" is similar to calling "B::minus_c".
This variable was added in Perl v5.6.0.
$DEBUGGING
$^D The current value of the debugging flags. May be read or set. Like its command-
line equivalent, you can use numeric or symbolic values, e.g. "$^D = 10" or "$^D =
"st"". See "-Dnumber" in perlrun. The contents of this variable also affects the
debugger operation. See "Debugger Internals" in perldebguts.
Mnemonic: value of -D switch.
${^GLOBAL_PHASE}
The current phase of the perl interpreter.
Possible values are:
CONSTRUCT
The "PerlInterpreter*" is being constructed via "perl_construct". This
value is mostly there for completeness and for use via the underlying C
variable "PL_phase". It's not really possible for Perl code to be
executed unless construction of the interpreter is finished.
START This is the global compile-time. That includes, basically, every "BEGIN"
block executed directly or indirectly from during the compile-time of the
top-level program.
This phase is not called "BEGIN" to avoid confusion with "BEGIN"-blocks,
as those are executed during compile-time of any compilation unit, not
just the top-level program. A new, localised compile-time entered at run-
time, for example by constructs as "eval "use SomeModule"" are not global
interpreter phases, and therefore aren't reflected by "${^GLOBAL_PHASE}".
CHECK Execution of any "CHECK" blocks.
INIT Similar to "CHECK", but for "INIT"-blocks, not "CHECK" blocks.
RUN The main run-time, i.e. the execution of "PL_main_root".
END Execution of any "END" blocks.
DESTRUCT
Global destruction.
Also note that there's no value for UNITCHECK-blocks. That's because those are
run for each compilation unit individually, and therefore is not a global
interpreter phase.
Not every program has to go through each of the possible phases, but transition
from one phase to another can only happen in the order described in the above
list.
An example of all of the phases Perl code can see:
BEGIN { print "compile-time: ${^GLOBAL_PHASE}\n" }
INIT { print "init-time: ${^GLOBAL_PHASE}\n" }
CHECK { print "check-time: ${^GLOBAL_PHASE}\n" }
{
package Print::Phase;
sub new {
my ($class, $time) = @_;
return bless \$time, $class;
}
sub DESTROY {
my $self = shift;
print "$$self: ${^GLOBAL_PHASE}\n";
}
}
print "run-time: ${^GLOBAL_PHASE}\n";
my $runtime = Print::Phase->new(
"lexical variables are garbage collected before END"
);
END { print "end-time: ${^GLOBAL_PHASE}\n" }
our $destruct = Print::Phase->new(
"package variables are garbage collected after END"
);
This will print out
compile-time: START
check-time: CHECK
init-time: INIT
run-time: RUN
lexical variables are garbage collected before END: RUN
end-time: END
package variables are garbage collected after END: DESTRUCT
This variable was added in Perl 5.14.0.
$^H WARNING: This variable is strictly for internal use only. Its availability,
behavior, and contents are subject to change without notice.
This variable contains compile-time hints for the Perl interpreter. At the end of
compilation of a BLOCK the value of this variable is restored to the value when
the interpreter started to compile the BLOCK.
Each time a statement completes being compiled, the current value of $^H is stored
with that statement, and can later be retrieved via "(caller($level))[8]".
When perl begins to parse any block construct that provides a lexical scope (e.g.,
eval body, required file, subroutine body, loop body, or conditional block), the
existing value of $^H is saved, but its value is left unchanged. When the
compilation of the block is completed, it regains the saved value. Between the
points where its value is saved and restored, code that executes within BEGIN
blocks is free to change the value of $^H.
This behavior provides the semantic of lexical scoping, and is used in, for
instance, the "use strict" pragma.
The contents should be an integer; different bits of it are used for different
pragmatic flags. Here's an example:
sub add_100 { $^H |= 0x100 }
sub foo {
BEGIN { add_100() }
bar->baz($boon);
}
Consider what happens during execution of the BEGIN block. At this point the
BEGIN block has already been compiled, but the body of "foo()" is still being
compiled. The new value of $^H will therefore be visible only while the body of
"foo()" is being compiled.
Substitution of "BEGIN { add_100() }" block with:
BEGIN { require strict; strict->import('vars') }
demonstrates how "use strict 'vars'" is implemented. Here's a conditional version
of the same lexical pragma:
BEGIN {
require strict; strict->import('vars') if $condition
}
This variable was added in Perl 5.003.
%^H The "%^H" hash provides the same scoping semantic as $^H. This makes it useful
for implementation of lexically scoped pragmas. See perlpragma. All the entries
are stringified when accessed at runtime, so only simple values can be
accommodated. This means no pointers to objects, for example.
Each time a statement completes being compiled, the current value of "%^H" is
stored with that statement, and can later be retrieved via "(caller($level))[10]".
When putting items into "%^H", in order to avoid conflicting with other users of
the hash there is a convention regarding which keys to use. A module should use
only keys that begin with the module's name (the name of its main package) and a
"/" character. For example, a module "Foo::Bar" should use keys such as
"Foo::Bar/baz".
This variable was added in Perl v5.6.0.
${^OPEN}
An internal variable used by PerlIO. A string in two parts, separated by a "\0"
byte, the first part describes the input layers, the second part describes the
output layers.
This is the mechanism that applies the lexical effects of the open pragma, and the
main program scope effects of the "io" or "D" options for the -C command-line
switch and PERL_UNICODE environment variable.
The functions "accept()", "open()", "pipe()", "readpipe()" (as well as the related
"qx" and "`STRING`" operators), "socket()", "socketpair()", and "sysopen()" are
affected by the lexical value of this variable. The implicit "ARGV" handle opened
by "readline()" (or the related "<>" and "<<>>" operators) on passed filenames is
also affected (but not if it opens "STDIN"). If this variable is not set, these
functions will set the default layers as described in "Defaults and how to
override them" in PerlIO.
"open()" ignores this variable (and the default layers) when called with 3
arguments and explicit layers are specified. Indirect calls to these functions
via modules like IO::Handle are not affected as they occur in a different lexical
scope. Directory handles such as opened by "opendir()" are not currently
affected.
This variable was added in Perl v5.8.0.
$PERLDB
$^P The internal variable for debugging support. The meanings of the various bits are
subject to change, but currently indicate:
0x01 Debug subroutine enter/exit.
0x02 Line-by-line debugging. Causes "DB::DB()" subroutine to be called for each
statement executed. Also causes saving source code lines (like 0x400).
0x04 Switch off optimizations.
0x08 Preserve more data for future interactive inspections.
0x10 Keep info about source lines on which a subroutine is defined.
0x20 Start with single-step on.
0x40 Use subroutine address instead of name when reporting.
0x80 Report "goto &subroutine" as well.
0x100 Provide informative "file" names for evals based on the place they were
compiled.
0x200 Provide informative names to anonymous subroutines based on the place they
were compiled.
0x400 Save source code lines into "@{"_<$filename"}".
0x800 When saving source, include evals that generate no subroutines.
0x1000
When saving source, include source that did not compile.
Some bits may be relevant at compile-time only, some at run-time only. This is a
new mechanism and the details may change. See also perldebguts.
${^TAINT}
Reflects if taint mode is on or off. 1 for on (the program was run with -T), 0
for off, -1 when only taint warnings are enabled (i.e. with -t or -TU).
Note: if your perl was built without taint support (see perlsec), then "${^TAINT}"
will always be 0, even if the program was run with -T).
This variable is read-only.
This variable was added in Perl v5.8.0.
${^SAFE_LOCALES}
Reflects if safe locale operations are available to this perl (when the value is
1) or not (the value is 0). This variable is always 1 if the perl has been
compiled without threads. It is also 1 if this perl is using thread-safe locale
operations. Note that an individual thread may choose to use the global locale
(generally unsafe) by calling "switch_to_global_locale" in perlapi. This variable
currently is still set to 1 in such threads.
This variable is read-only.
This variable was added in Perl v5.28.0.
${^UNICODE}
Reflects certain Unicode settings of Perl. See perlrun documentation for the "-C"
switch for more information about the possible values.
This variable is set during Perl startup and is thereafter read-only.
This variable was added in Perl v5.8.2.
${^UTF8CACHE}
This variable controls the state of the internal UTF-8 offset caching code. 1 for
on (the default), 0 for off, -1 to debug the caching code by checking all its
results against linear scans, and panicking on any discrepancy.
This variable was added in Perl v5.8.9. It is subject to change or removal
without notice, but is currently used to avoid recalculating the boundaries of
multi-byte UTF-8-encoded characters.
${^UTF8LOCALE}
This variable indicates whether a UTF-8 locale was detected by perl at startup.
This information is used by perl when it's in adjust-utf8ness-to-locale mode (as
when run with the "-CL" command-line switch); see perlrun for more info on this.
This variable was added in Perl v5.8.8.
Deprecated and removed variables
Deprecating a variable announces the intent of the perl maintainers to eventually remove
the variable from the language. It may still be available despite its status. Using a
deprecated variable triggers a warning.
Once a variable is removed, its use triggers an error telling you the variable is
unsupported.
See perldiag for details about error messages.
$# $# was a variable that could be used to format printed numbers. After a
deprecation cycle, its magic was removed in Perl v5.10.0 and using it now triggers
a warning: "$# is no longer supported".
This is not the sigil you use in front of an array name to get the last index,
like $#array. That's still how you get the last index of an array in Perl. The
two have nothing to do with each other.
Deprecated in Perl 5.
Removed in Perl v5.10.0.
$* $* was a variable that you could use to enable multiline matching. After a
deprecation cycle, its magic was removed in Perl v5.10.0. Using it now triggers a
warning: "$* is no longer supported". You should use the "/s" and "/m" regexp
modifiers instead.
Deprecated in Perl 5.
Removed in Perl v5.10.0.
$[ This variable stores the index of the first element in an array, and of the first
character in a substring. The default is 0, but you could theoretically set it to
1 to make Perl behave more like awk (or Fortran) when subscripting and when
evaluating the index() and substr() functions.
As of release 5 of Perl, assignment to $[ is treated as a compiler directive, and
cannot influence the behavior of any other file. (That's why you can only assign
compile-time constants to it.) Its use is highly discouraged.
Prior to Perl v5.10.0, assignment to $[ could be seen from outer lexical scopes in
the same file, unlike other compile-time directives (such as strict). Using
local() on it would bind its value strictly to a lexical block. Now it is always
lexically scoped.
As of Perl v5.16.0, it is implemented by the arybase module.
As of Perl v5.30.0, or under "use v5.16", or "no feature "array_base"", $[ no
longer has any effect, and always contains 0. Assigning 0 to it is permitted, but
any other value will produce an error.
Mnemonic: [ begins subscripts.
Deprecated in Perl v5.12.0.
${^ENCODING}
This variable is no longer supported.
It used to hold the object reference to the "Encode" object that was used to
convert the source code to Unicode.
Its purpose was to allow your non-ASCII Perl scripts not to have to be written in
UTF-8; this was useful before editors that worked on UTF-8 encoded text were
common, but that was long ago. It caused problems, such as affecting the
operation of other modules that weren't expecting it, causing general mayhem.
If you need something like this functionality, it is recommended that use you a
simple source filter, such as Filter::Encoding.
If you are coming here because code of yours is being adversely affected by
someone's use of this variable, you can usually work around it by doing this:
local ${^ENCODING};
near the beginning of the functions that are getting broken. This undefines the
variable during the scope of execution of the including function.
This variable was added in Perl 5.8.2 and removed in 5.26.0. Setting it to
anything other than "undef" was made fatal in Perl 5.28.0.
${^WIN32_SLOPPY_STAT}
This variable no longer has any function.
This variable was added in Perl v5.10.0 and removed in Perl v5.34.0.