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NAME
compile - Erlang Compiler
DESCRIPTION
This module provides an interface to the standard Erlang compiler. It can generate either
a new file, which contains the object code, or return a binary, which can be loaded
directly.
DATA TYPES
option() = term()
See file/2 for detailed description
forms() = term()
List of Erlang abstract or Core Erlang format representations, as used by forms/2
EXPORTS
env_compiler_options()
Return compiler options given via the environment variable ERL_COMPILER_OPTIONS. If
the value is a list, it is returned as is. If it is not a list, it is put into a
list.
file(File)
Is the same as file(File, [verbose,report_errors,report_warnings]).
file(File, Options) -> CompRet
Types:
CompRet = ModRet | BinRet | ErrRet
ModRet = {ok,ModuleName} | {ok,ModuleName,Warnings}
BinRet = {ok,ModuleName,Binary} | {ok,ModuleName,Binary,Warnings}
ErrRet = error | {error,Errors,Warnings}
Compiles the code in the file File, which is an Erlang source code file without the
.erl extension. Options determine the behavior of the compiler.
Returns {ok,ModuleName} if successful, or error if there are errors. An object code
file is created if the compilation succeeds without errors. It is considered to be
an error if the module name in the source code is not the same as the basename of
the output file.
Available options:
brief:
Restricts error and warning messages to a single line of output. As of OTP 24,
the compiler will by default also display the part of the source code that the
message refers to.
basic_validation:
This option is a fast way to test whether a module will compile successfully.
This is useful for code generators that want to verify the code that they emit.
No code is generated. If warnings are enabled, warnings generated by the
erl_lint module (such as warnings for unused variables and functions) are also
returned.
Use option strong_validation to generate all warnings that the compiler would
generate.
strong_validation:
Similar to option basic_validation. No code is generated, but more compiler
passes are run to ensure that warnings generated by the optimization passes are
generated (such as clauses that will not match, or expressions that are
guaranteed to fail with an exception at runtime).
binary:
The compiler returns the object code in a binary instead of creating an object
file. If successful, the compiler returns {ok,ModuleName,Binary}.
bin_opt_info:
The compiler will emit informational warnings about binary matching
optimizations (both successful and unsuccessful). For more information, see the
section about bin_opt_info in the Efficiency Guide.
{compile_info, [{atom(), term()}]}:
Allows compilers built on top of compile to attach extra compilation metadata
to the compile_info chunk in the generated beam file.
It is advised for compilers to remove all non-deterministic information if the
deterministic option is supported and it was supplied by the user.
compressed:
The compiler will compress the generated object code, which can be useful for
embedded systems.
debug_info:
Includes debug information in the form of Erlang Abstract Format in the
debug_info chunk of the compiled beam module. Tools such as Debugger, Xref, and
Cover require the debug information to be included.
Warning: Source code can be reconstructed from the debug information. Use
encrypted debug information (encrypt_debug_info) to prevent this.
For details, see beam_lib(3erl).
{debug_info, {Backend, Data}}:
Includes custom debug information in the form of a Backend module with custom
Data in the compiled beam module. The given module must implement a
debug_info/4 function and is responsible for generating different code
representations, as described in the debug_info under beam_lib(3erl).
Warning: Source code can be reconstructed from the debug information. Use
encrypted debug information (encrypt_debug_info) to prevent this.
{debug_info_key,KeyString}:
{debug_info_key,{Mode,KeyString}}:
Includes debug information, but encrypts it so that it cannot be accessed
without supplying the key. (To give option debug_info as well is allowed, but
not necessary.) Using this option is a good way to always have the debug
information available during testing, yet protecting the source code.
Mode is the type of crypto algorithm to be used for encrypting the debug
information. The default (and currently the only) type is des3_cbc.
For details, see beam_lib(3erl).
encrypt_debug_info:
Similar to the debug_info_key option, but the key is read from an .erlang.crypt
file.
For details, see beam_lib(3erl).
deterministic:
Omit the options and source tuples in the list returned by
Module:module_info(compile), and reduce the paths in stack traces to the module
name alone. This option will make it easier to achieve reproducible builds.
{feature, Feature, enable | disable}:
Enable (disable) the feature Feature during compilation. The special feature
all can be used to enable (disable) all features.
Note:
This option has no effect when used in a -compile(..) attribute. Instead, the
-feature(..) directive (below) should be used.
A feature can also be enabled (disabled) using the -feature(Feature, enable |
disable). module directive. Note that this directive can only be present in a
prefix of the file, before exports and function definitions. This is the
preferred method of enabling and disabling features, since it is a local property
of a module.
makedep:
Produces a Makefile rule to track headers dependencies. No object file is
produced.
By default, this rule is written to <File>.Pbeam. However, if option binary is
set, nothing is written and the rule is returned in Binary.
The output will be encoded in UTF-8.
For example, if you have the following module:
-module(module).
-include_lib("eunit/include/eunit.hrl").
-include("header.hrl").
The Makefile rule generated by this option looks as follows:
module.beam: module.erl \
/usr/local/lib/erlang/lib/eunit/include/eunit.hrl \
header.hrl
makedep_side_effect:
The dependencies are created as a side effect to the normal compilation
process. This means that the object file will also be produced. This option
override the makedep option.
{makedep_output, Output}:
Writes generated rules to Output instead of the default <File>.Pbeam. Output
can be a filename or an io_device(). To write to stdout, use standard_io.
However, if binary is set, nothing is written to Output and the result is
returned to the caller with {ok, ModuleName, Binary}.
{makedep_target, Target}:
Changes the name of the rule emitted to Target.
makedep_quote_target:
Characters in Target special to make(1) are quoted.
makedep_add_missing:
Considers missing headers as generated files and adds them to the dependencies.
makedep_phony:
Adds a phony target for each dependency.
'P':
Produces a listing of the parsed code, after preprocessing and parse
transforms, in the file <File>.P. No object file is produced.
'E':
Produces a listing of the code, after all source code transformations have been
performed, in the file <File>.E. No object file is produced.
'S':
Produces a listing of the assembler code in the file <File>.S. No object file
is produced.
recv_opt_info:
The compiler will emit informational warnings about selective receive
optimizations (both successful and unsuccessful). For more information, see the
section about selective receive optimization in the Efficiency Guide.
report_errors/report_warnings:
Causes errors/warnings to be printed as they occur.
report:
A short form for both report_errors and report_warnings.
return_errors:
If this flag is set, {error,ErrorList,WarningList} is returned when there are
errors.
return_warnings:
If this flag is set, an extra field, containing WarningList, is added to the
tuples returned on success.
warnings_as_errors:
Causes warnings to be treated as errors. This option is supported since R13B04.
{error_location,line | column}:
If the value of this flag is line, the location ErrorLocation of warnings and
errors is a line number. If the value is column, ErrorLocation includes both a
line number and a column number. Default is column. This option is supported
since Erlang/OTP 24.0.
If the value of this flag is column, debug information includes column
information.
return:
A short form for both return_errors and return_warnings.
verbose:
Causes more verbose information from the compiler, describing what it is doing.
{source,FileName}:
Overrides the source file name as presented in module_info(compile) and stack
traces.
absolute_source:
Turns the source file name (as presented in module_info(compile) and stack
traces) into an absolute path, which helps external tools like perf and gdb
find Erlang source code.
{outdir,Dir}:
Sets a new directory for the object code. The current directory is used for
output, except when a directory has been specified with this option.
export_all:
Causes all functions in the module to be exported.
{i,Dir}:
Adds Dir to the list of directories to be searched when including a file. When
encountering an -include or -include_lib directive, the compiler searches for
header files in the following directories:
* ".", the current working directory of the file server
* The base name of the compiled file
* The directories specified using option i; the directory specified last is
searched first
{d,Macro}:
{d,Macro,Value}:
Defines a macro Macro to have the value Value. Macro is of type atom, and Value
can be any term. The default Value is true.
{parse_transform,Module}:
Causes the parse transformation function Module:parse_transform/2 to be applied
to the parsed code before the code is checked for errors.
from_abstr:
The input file is expected to contain Erlang terms representing forms in
abstract format (default file suffix ".abstr"). Note that the format of such
terms can change between releases.
See also the no_lint option.
from_asm:
The input file is expected to be assembler code (default file suffix ".S").
Notice that the format of assembler files is not documented, and can change
between releases.
from_core:
The input file is expected to be core code (default file suffix ".core").
Notice that the format of core files is not documented, and can change between
releases.
no_spawn_compiler_process:
By default, all code is compiled in a separate process which is terminated at
the end of compilation. However, some tools, like Dialyzer or compilers for
other BEAM languages, may already manage their own worker processes and
spawning an extra process may slow the compilation down. In such scenarios, you
can pass this option to stop the compiler from spawning an additional process.
no_strict_record_tests:
This option is not recommended.
By default, the generated code for operation Record#record_tag.field verifies
that the tuple Record has the correct size for the record, and that the first
element is the tag record_tag. Use this option to omit the verification code.
no_error_module_mismatch:
Normally the compiler verifies that the module name given in the source code is
the same as the base name of the output file and refuses to generate an output
file if there is a mismatch. If you have a good reason (or other reason) for
having a module name unrelated to the name of the output file, this option
disables that verification (there will not even be a warning if there is a
mismatch).
{no_auto_import,[{F,A}, ...]}:
Makes the function F/A no longer being auto-imported from the erlang module,
which resolves BIF name clashes. This option must be used to resolve name
clashes with BIFs auto-imported before R14A, if it is needed to call the local
function with the same name as an auto-imported BIF without module prefix.
Note:
As from R14A and forward, the compiler resolves calls without module prefix to
local or imported functions before trying with auto-imported BIFs. If the BIF is
to be called, use the erlang module prefix in the call, not
{no_auto_import,[{F,A}, ...]}.
If this option is written in the source code, as a -compile directive, the
syntax F/A can be used instead of {F,A}, for example:
-compile({no_auto_import,[error/1]}).
no_auto_import:
Do not auto-import any functions from erlang module.
no_line_info:
Omits line number information to produce a slightly smaller output file.
no_lint:
Skips the pass that checks for errors and warnings. Only applicable together
with the from_abstr option. This is mainly for implementations of other
languages on top of Erlang, which have already done their own checks to
guarantee correctness of the code.
Caveat: When this option is used, there are no guarantees that the code output
by the compiler is correct and safe to use. The responsibility for correctness
lies on the code or person generating the abstract format. If the code contains
errors, the compiler may crash or produce unsafe code.
{extra_chunks, [{binary(), binary()}]}:
Pass extra chunks to be stored in the .beam file. The extra chunks must be a
list of tuples with a four byte binary as chunk name followed by a binary with
the chunk contents. See beam_lib for more information.
If warnings are turned on (option report_warnings described earlier), the following
options control what type of warnings that are generated. Except from
{warn_format,Verbosity}, the following options have two forms:
* A warn_xxx form, to turn on the warning.
* A nowarn_xxx form, to turn off the warning.
In the descriptions that follow, the form that is used to change the default value
are listed.
{warn_format, Verbosity}:
Causes warnings to be emitted for malformed format strings as arguments to
io:format and similar functions.
Verbosity selects the number of warnings:
* 0 = No warnings
* 1 = Warnings for invalid format strings and incorrect number of arguments
* 2 = Warnings also when the validity cannot be checked, for example, when the
format string argument is a variable.
The default verbosity is 1. Verbosity 0 can also be selected by option
nowarn_format.
nowarn_bif_clash:
This option is removed, it generates a fatal error if used.
Warning:
As from beginning with R14A, the compiler no longer calls the auto-imported BIF
if the name clashes with a local or explicitly imported function, and a call
without explicit module name is issued. Instead, the local or imported function
is called. Still accepting nowarn_bif_clash would make a module calling functions
clashing with auto-imported BIFs compile with both the old and new compilers, but
with completely different semantics. This is why the option is removed.
The use of this option has always been discouraged. As from R14A, it is an error
to use it.
To resolve BIF clashes, use explicit module names or the {no_auto_import,[F/A]}
compiler directive.
{nowarn_bif_clash, FAs}:
This option is removed, it generates a fatal error if used.
Warning:
The use of this option has always been discouraged. As from R14A, it is an error
to use it.
To resolve BIF clashes, use explicit module names or the {no_auto_import,[F/A]}
compiler directive.
nowarn_export_all:
Turns off warnings for uses of the export_all option. Default is to emit a
warning if option export_all is also given.
warn_export_vars:
Emits warnings for all implicitly exported variables referred to after the
primitives where they were first defined. By default, the compiler only emits
warnings for exported variables referred to in a pattern.
nowarn_shadow_vars:
Turns off warnings for "fresh" variables in functional objects or list
comprehensions with the same name as some already defined variable. Default is
to emit warnings for such variables.
warn_keywords:
Emits warnings when the code contains atoms that are used as keywords in some
feature. When the feature is enabled, any occurrences will lead to a syntax
error. To prevent this, the atom has to be renamed or quoted.
nowarn_unused_function:
Turns off warnings for unused local functions. Default is to emit warnings for
all local functions that are not called directly or indirectly by an exported
function. The compiler does not include unused local functions in the generated
beam file, but the warning is still useful to keep the source code cleaner.
{nowarn_unused_function, FAs}:
Turns off warnings for unused local functions like nowarn_unused_function does,
but only for the mentioned local functions. FAs is a tuple {Name,Arity} or a
list of such tuples.
nowarn_deprecated_function:
Turns off warnings for calls to deprecated functions. Default is to emit
warnings for every call to a function known by the compiler to be deprecated.
Notice that the compiler does not know about attribute -deprecated(), but uses
an assembled list of deprecated functions in Erlang/OTP. To do a more general
check, the Xref tool can be used. See also xref(3erl) and the function
xref:m/1, also accessible through the function c:xm/1.
{nowarn_deprecated_function, MFAs}:
Turns off warnings for calls to deprecated functions like
nowarn_deprecated_function does, but only for the mentioned functions. MFAs is
a tuple {Module,Name,Arity} or a list of such tuples.
nowarn_deprecated_type:
Turns off warnings for use of deprecated types. Default is to emit warnings for
every use of a type known by the compiler to be deprecated.
nowarn_removed:
Turns off warnings for calls to functions that have been removed. Default is to
emit warnings for every call to a function known by the compiler to have been
recently removed from Erlang/OTP.
{nowarn_removed, ModulesOrMFAs}:
Turns off warnings for calls to modules or functions that have been removed.
Default is to emit warnings for every call to a function known by the compiler
to have been recently removed from Erlang/OTP.
nowarn_obsolete_guard:
Turns off warnings for calls to old type testing BIFs, such as pid/1 and
list/1. See the Erlang Reference Manual for a complete list of type testing
BIFs and their old equivalents. Default is to emit warnings for calls to old
type testing BIFs.
warn_unused_import:
Emits warnings for unused imported functions. Default is to emit no warnings
for unused imported functions.
nowarn_underscore_match:
By default, warnings are emitted when a variable that begins with an underscore
is matched after being bound. Use this option to turn off this kind of warning.
nowarn_unused_vars:
By default, warnings are emitted for unused variables, except for variables
beginning with an underscore ("Prolog style warnings"). Use this option to turn
off this kind of warning.
nowarn_unused_record:
Turns off warnings for unused record definitions. Default is to emit warnings
for unused locally defined records.
{nowarn_unused_record, RecordNames}:
Turns off warnings for unused record definitions. Default is to emit warnings
for unused locally defined records.
nowarn_unused_type:
Turns off warnings for unused type declarations. Default is to emit warnings
for unused local type declarations.
nowarn_nif_inline:
By default, warnings are emitted when inlining is enabled in a module that may
load NIFs, as the compiler may inline NIF fallbacks by accident. Use this
option to turn off this kind of warnings.
warn_missing_spec:
By default, warnings are not emitted when a specification (or contract) for an
exported function is not given. Use this option to turn on this kind of
warning.
warn_missing_spec_all:
By default, warnings are not emitted when a specification (or contract) for an
exported or unexported function is not given. Use this option to turn on this
kind of warning.
Other kinds of warnings are opportunistic warnings. They are generated when the
compiler happens to notice potential issues during optimization and code
generation.
Note:
The compiler does not warn for expressions that it does not attempt to optimize.
For example, the compiler will emit a warning for 1/0 but not for X/0, because 1/0
is a constant expression that the compiler will attempt to evaluate.
The absence of warnings does not mean that there are no remaining errors in the
code.
Opportunistic warnings can be disabled using the following options:
nowarn_opportunistic:
Disable all opportunistic warnings.
nowarn_failed:
Disable warnings for expressions that will always fail (such as atom+42).
nowarn_ignored:
Disable warnings for expressions whose values are ignored.
nowarn_nomatch:
Disable warnings for patterns that will never match (such as a=b) and for
guards that always evaluate to false.
Note:
All options, except the include path ({i,Dir}), can also be given in the file with
attribute -compile([Option,...]). Attribute -compile() is allowed after the
function definitions.
Note:
Before OTP 22, the option {nowarn_deprecated_function, MFAs} was only recognized
when given in the file with attribute -compile(). (The option
{nowarn_unused_function,FAs} was incorrectly documented to only work in a file, but
it also worked when given in the option list.) Starting from OTP 22, all options
that can be given in the file can also be given in the option list.
For debugging of the compiler, or for pure curiosity, the intermediate code
generated by each compiler pass can be inspected. To print a complete list of the
options to produce list files, type compile:options() at the Erlang shell prompt.
The options are printed in the order that the passes are executed. If more than one
listing option is used, the one representing the earliest pass takes effect.
Unrecognized options are ignored.
Both WarningList and ErrorList have the following format:
[{FileName,[ErrorInfo]}].
ErrorInfo is described later in this section. The filename is included here, as the
compiler uses the Erlang pre-processor epp, which allows the code to be included in
other files. It is therefore important to know to which file the location of an
error or a warning refers.
forms(Forms)
Is the same as forms(Forms, [verbose,report_errors,report_warnings]).
forms(Forms, Options) -> CompRet
Types:
Forms = forms()
forms() = [erl_parse:abstract_form] | cerl:c_module()
Options = [option()]
CompRet = BinRet | ErrRet
BinRet = {ok,ModuleName,BinaryOrCode} | {ok,ModuleName,BinaryOrCode,Warnings}
ModuleName = module()
BinaryOrCode = binary() | term()
ErrRet = error | {error,Errors,Warnings}
Warnings = Errors = [{file:filename(), [{erl_anno:location() | 'none', module(),
term()}]}]
Analogous to file/1, but takes a list of forms (in either Erlang abstract or Core
Erlang format representation) as first argument. Option binary is implicit, that
is, no object code file is produced. For options that normally produce a listing
file, such as 'E', the internal format for that compiler pass (an Erlang term,
usually not a binary) is returned instead of a binary.
format_error(ErrorDescriptor) -> chars()
Types:
ErrorDescriptor = errordesc()
Uses an ErrorDescriptor and returns a deep list of characters that describes the
error. This function is usually called implicitly when an ErrorInfo structure
(described in section Error Information) is processed.
output_generated(Options) -> true | false
Types:
Options = [term()]
Determines whether the compiler generates a beam file with the given options. true
means that a beam file is generated. false means that the compiler generates some
listing file, returns a binary, or merely checks the syntax of the source code.
noenv_file(File, Options) -> CompRet
Works like file/2, except that the environment variable ERL_COMPILER_OPTIONS is not
consulted.
noenv_forms(Forms, Options) -> CompRet
Works like forms/2, except that the environment variable ERL_COMPILER_OPTIONS is
not consulted.
noenv_output_generated(Options) -> true | false
Types:
Options = [term()]
Works like output_generated/1, except that the environment variable
ERL_COMPILER_OPTIONS is not consulted.
DEFAULT COMPILER OPTIONS
The (host operating system) environment variable ERL_COMPILER_OPTIONS can be used to give
default compiler options. Its value must be a valid Erlang term. If the value is a list,
it is used as is. If it is not a list, it is put into a list.
The list is appended to any options given to file/2, forms/2, and output_generated/2. Use
the alternative functions noenv_file/2, noenv_forms/2, or noenv_output_generated/2 if you
do not want the environment variable to be consulted, for example, if you are calling the
compiler recursively from inside a parse transform.
The list can be retrieved with env_compiler_options/0.
INLINING
The compiler can do function inlining within an Erlang module. Inlining means that a call
to a function is replaced with the function body with the arguments replaced with the
actual values. The semantics are preserved, except if exceptions are generated in the
inlined code. Exceptions are reported as occurring in the function the body was inlined
into. Also, function_clause exceptions are converted to similar case_clause exceptions.
When a function is inlined, the original function is kept if it is exported (either by an
explicit export or if the option export_all was given) or if not all calls to the function
are inlined.
Inlining does not necessarily improve running time. For example, inlining can increase
Beam stack use, which probably is detrimental to performance for recursive functions.
Inlining is never default. It must be explicitly enabled with a compiler option or a
-compile() attribute in the source module.
To enable inlining, either use the option inline to let the compiler decide which
functions to inline, or {inline,[{Name,Arity},...]} to have the compiler inline all calls
to the given functions. If the option is given inside a compile directive in an Erlang
module, {Name,Arity} can be written as Name/Arity.
Example of explicit inlining:
-compile({inline,[pi/0]}).
pi() -> 3.1416.
Example of implicit inlining:
-compile(inline).
The option {inline_size,Size} controls how large functions that are allowed to be inlined.
Default is 24, which keeps the size of the inlined code roughly the same as the un-inlined
version (only relatively small functions are inlined).
Example:
%% Aggressive inlining - will increase code size.
-compile(inline).
-compile({inline_size,100}).
INLINING OF LIST FUNCTIONS
The compiler can also inline various list manipulation functions from the module list in
STDLIB.
This feature must be explicitly enabled with a compiler option or a -compile() attribute
in the source module.
To enable inlining of list functions, use option inline_list_funcs.
The following functions are inlined:
* lists:all/2
* lists:any/2
* lists:foreach/2
* lists:map/2
* lists:flatmap/2
* lists:filter/2
* lists:foldl/3
* lists:foldr/3
* lists:mapfoldl/3
* lists:mapfoldr/3
PARSE TRANSFORMATIONS
Parse transformations are used when a programmer wants to use Erlang syntax but with
different semantics. The original Erlang code is then transformed into other Erlang code.
See erl_id_trans(3erl) for an example and an explanation of the function
parse_transform_info/0.
ERROR INFORMATION
The ErrorInfo mentioned earlier is the standard ErrorInfo structure, which is returned
from all I/O modules. It has the following format:
{ErrorLocation, Module, ErrorDescriptor}
ErrorLocation is the atom none if the error does not correspond to a specific location,
for example, if the source file does not exist.
A string describing the error is obtained with the following call:
Module:format_error(ErrorDescriptor)
SEE ALSO
epp(3erl), erl_id_trans(3erl), erl_lint(3erl), beam_lib(3erl)