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NAME
yacc - yet another compiler compiler (DEVELOPMENT)
SYNOPSIS
yacc [-dltv][-b file_prefix][-p sym_prefix] grammar
DESCRIPTION
The yacc utility shall read a description of a context-free grammar in grammar and write C source code,
conforming to the ISO C standard, to a code file, and optionally header information into a header file,
in the current directory. The C code shall define a function and related routines and macros for an
automaton that executes a parsing algorithm meeting the requirements in Algorithms .
The form and meaning of the grammar are described in the EXTENDED DESCRIPTION section.
The C source code and header file shall be produced in a form suitable as input for the C compiler (see
c99 ).
OPTIONS
The yacc utility shall conform to the Base Definitions volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001, Section 12.2,
Utility Syntax Guidelines.
The following options shall be supported:
-b file_prefix
Use file_prefix instead of y as the prefix for all output filenames. The code file y.tab.c, the
header file y.tab.h (created when -d is specified), and the description file y.output (created
when -v is specified), shall be changed to file_prefix .tab.c, file_prefix .tab.h, and file_prefix
.output, respectively.
-d Write the header file; by default only the code file is written. The #define statements associate
the token codes assigned by yacc with the user-declared token names. This allows source files
other than y.tab.c to access the token codes.
-l Produce a code file that does not contain any #line constructs. If this option is not present, it
is unspecified whether the code file or header file contains #line directives. This should only be
used after the grammar and the associated actions are fully debugged.
-p sym_prefix
Use sym_prefix instead of yy as the prefix for all external names produced by yacc. The names
affected shall include the functions yyparse(), yylex(), and yyerror(), and the variables yylval,
yychar, and yydebug. (In the remainder of this section, the six symbols cited are referenced using
their default names only as a notational convenience.) Local names may also be affected by the -p
option; however, the -p option shall not affect #define symbols generated by yacc.
-t Modify conditional compilation directives to permit compilation of debugging code in the code
file. Runtime debugging statements shall always be contained in the code file, but by default
conditional compilation directives prevent their compilation.
-v Write a file containing a description of the parser and a report of conflicts generated by
ambiguities in the grammar.
OPERANDS
The following operand is required:
grammar
A pathname of a file containing instructions, hereafter called grammar, for which a parser is to
be created. The format for the grammar is described in the EXTENDED DESCRIPTION section.
STDIN
Not used.
INPUT FILES
The file grammar shall be a text file formatted as specified in the EXTENDED DESCRIPTION section.
ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
The following environment variables shall affect the execution of yacc:
LANG Provide a default value for the internationalization variables that are unset or null. (See the
Base Definitions volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001, Section 8.2, Internationalization Variables for
the precedence of internationalization variables used to determine the values of locale
categories.)
LC_ALL If set to a non-empty string value, override the values of all the other internationalization
variables.
LC_CTYPE
Determine the locale for the interpretation of sequences of bytes of text data as characters (for
example, single-byte as opposed to multi-byte characters in arguments and input files).
LC_MESSAGES
Determine the locale that should be used to affect the format and contents of diagnostic messages
written to standard error.
NLSPATH
Determine the location of message catalogs for the processing of LC_MESSAGES .
The LANG and LC_* variables affect the execution of the yacc utility as stated. The main() function
defined in Yacc Library shall call:
setlocale(LC_ALL, "")
and thus the program generated by yacc shall also be affected by the contents of these variables at
runtime.
ASYNCHRONOUS EVENTS
Default.
STDOUT
Not used.
STDERR
If shift/reduce or reduce/reduce conflicts are detected in grammar, yacc shall write a report of those
conflicts to the standard error in an unspecified format.
Standard error shall also be used for diagnostic messages.
OUTPUT FILES
The code file, the header file, and the description file shall be text files. All are described in the
following sections.
Code File
This file shall contain the C source code for the yyparse() function. It shall contain code for the
various semantic actions with macro substitution performed on them as described in the EXTENDED
DESCRIPTION section. It also shall contain a copy of the #define statements in the header file. If a
%union declaration is used, the declaration for YYSTYPE shall also be included in this file.
Header File
The header file shall contain #define statements that associate the token numbers with the token names.
This allows source files other than the code file to access the token codes. If a %union declaration is
used, the declaration for YYSTYPE and an extern YYSTYPE yylval declaration shall also be included in this
file.
Description File
The description file shall be a text file containing a description of the state machine corresponding to
the parser, using an unspecified format. Limits for internal tables (see Limits ) shall also be reported,
in an implementation-defined manner. (Some implementations may use dynamic allocation techniques and have
no specific limit values to report.)
EXTENDED DESCRIPTION
The yacc command accepts a language that is used to define a grammar for a target language to be parsed
by the tables and code generated by yacc. The language accepted by yacc as a grammar for the target
language is described below using the yacc input language itself.
The input grammar includes rules describing the input structure of the target language and code to be
invoked when these rules are recognized to provide the associated semantic action. The code to be
executed shall appear as bodies of text that are intended to be C-language code. The C-language
inclusions are presumed to form a correct function when processed by yacc into its output files. The code
included in this way shall be executed during the recognition of the target language.
Given a grammar, the yacc utility generates the files described in the OUTPUT FILES section. The code
file can be compiled and linked using c99. If the declaration and programs sections of the grammar file
did not include definitions of main(), yylex(), and yyerror(), the compiled output requires linking with
externally supplied versions of those functions. Default versions of main() and yyerror() are supplied in
the yacc library and can be linked in by using the -l y operand to c99. The yacc library interfaces need
not support interfaces with other than the default yy symbol prefix. The application provides the lexical
analyzer function, yylex(); the lex utility is specifically designed to generate such a routine.
Input Language
The application shall ensure that every specification file consists of three sections in order:
declarations, grammar rules, and programs, separated by double percent signs ( "%%" ). The declarations
and programs sections can be empty. If the latter is empty, the preceding "%%" mark separating it from
the rules section can be omitted.
The input is free form text following the structure of the grammar defined below.
Lexical Structure of the Grammar
The <blank>s, <newline>s, and <form-feed>s shall be ignored, except that the application shall ensure
that they do not appear in names or multi-character reserved symbols. Comments shall be enclosed in
"/* ... */" , and can appear wherever a name is valid.
Names are of arbitrary length, made up of letters, periods ( '.' ), underscores ( '_' ), and non-initial
digits. Uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct. Conforming applications shall not use names
beginning in yy or YY since the yacc parser uses such names. Many of the names appear in the final output
of yacc, and thus they should be chosen to conform with any additional rules created by the C compiler to
be used. In particular they appear in #define statements.
A literal shall consist of a single character enclosed in single-quotes ( '" ). All of the escape
sequences supported for character constants by the ISO C standard shall be supported by yacc.
The relationship with the lexical analyzer is discussed in detail below.
The application shall ensure that the NUL character is not used in grammar rules or literals.
Declarations Section
The declarations section is used to define the symbols used to define the target language and their
relationship with each other. In particular, much of the additional information required to resolve
ambiguities in the context-free grammar for the target language is provided here.
Usually yacc assigns the relationship between the symbolic names it generates and their underlying
numeric value. The declarations section makes it possible to control the assignment of these values.
It is also possible to keep semantic information associated with the tokens currently on the parse stack
in a user-defined C-language union, if the members of the union are associated with the various names in
the grammar. The declarations section provides for this as well.
The first group of declarators below all take a list of names as arguments. That list can optionally be
preceded by the name of a C union member (called a tag below) appearing within '<' and '>' . (As an
exception to the typographical conventions of the rest of this volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001, in this
case <tag> does not represent a metavariable, but the literal angle bracket characters surrounding a
symbol.) The use of tag specifies that the tokens named on this line shall be of the same C type as the
union member referenced by tag. This is discussed in more detail below.
For lists used to define tokens, the first appearance of a given token can be followed by a positive
integer (as a string of decimal digits). If this is done, the underlying value assigned to it for lexical
purposes shall be taken to be that number.
The following declares name to be a token:
%token [<tag>] name [number][name [number]]...
If tag is present, the C type for all tokens on this line shall be declared to be the type referenced by
tag. If a positive integer, number, follows a name, that value shall be assigned to the token.
The following declares name to be a token, and assigns precedence to it:
%left [<tag>] name [number][name [number]]...
%right [<tag>] name [number][name [number]]...
One or more lines, each beginning with one of these symbols, can appear in this section. All tokens on
the same line have the same precedence level and associativity; the lines are in order of increasing
precedence or binding strength. %left denotes that the operators on that line are left associative, and
%right similarly denotes right associative operators. If tag is present, it shall declare a C type for
names as described for %token.
The following declares name to be a token, and indicates that this cannot be used associatively:
%nonassoc [<tag>] name [number][name [number]]...
If the parser encounters associative use of this token it reports an error. If tag is present, it shall
declare a C type for names as described for %token.
The following declares that union member names are non-terminals, and thus it is required to have a tag
field at its beginning:
%type <tag> name...
Because it deals with non-terminals only, assigning a token number or using a literal is also prohibited.
If this construct is present, yacc shall perform type checking; if this construct is not present, the
parse stack shall hold only the int type.
Every name used in grammar not defined by a %token, %left, %right, or %nonassoc declaration is assumed to
represent a non-terminal symbol. The yacc utility shall report an error for any non-terminal symbol that
does not appear on the left side of at least one grammar rule.
Once the type, precedence, or token number of a name is specified, it shall not be changed. If the first
declaration of a token does not assign a token number, yacc shall assign a token number. Once this
assignment is made, the token number shall not be changed by explicit assignment.
The following declarators do not follow the previous pattern.
The following declares the non-terminal name to be the start symbol, which represents the largest, most
general structure described by the grammar rules:
%start name
By default, it is the left-hand side of the first grammar rule; this default can be overridden with this
declaration.
The following declares the yacc value stack to be a union of the various types of values desired:
%union { body of union (in C) }
By default, the values returned by actions (see below) and the lexical analyzer shall be of type int. The
yacc utility keeps track of types, and it shall insert corresponding union member names in order to
perform strict type checking of the resulting parser.
Alternatively, given that at least one <tag> construct is used, the union can be declared in a header
file (which shall be included in the declarations section by using a #include construct within %{ and
%}), and a typedef used to define the symbol YYSTYPE to represent this union. The effect of %union is to
provide the declaration of YYSTYPE directly from the yacc input.
C-language declarations and definitions can appear in the declarations section, enclosed by the following
marks:
%{ ... %}
These statements shall be copied into the code file, and have global scope within it so that they can be
used in the rules and program sections.
The application shall ensure that the declarations section is terminated by the token %%.
Grammar Rules in yacc
The rules section defines the context-free grammar to be accepted by the function yacc generates, and
associates with those rules C-language actions and additional precedence information. The grammar is
described below, and a formal definition follows.
The rules section is comprised of one or more grammar rules. A grammar rule has the form:
A : BODY ;
The symbol A represents a non-terminal name, and BODY represents a sequence of zero or more names,
literals, and semantic actions that can then be followed by optional precedence rules. Only the names and
literals participate in the formation of the grammar; the semantic actions and precedence rules are used
in other ways. The colon and the semicolon are yacc punctuation. If there are several successive grammar
rules with the same left-hand side, the vertical bar '|' can be used to avoid rewriting the left-hand
side; in this case the semicolon appears only after the last rule. The BODY part can be empty (or empty
of names and literals) to indicate that the non-terminal symbol matches the empty string.
The yacc utility assigns a unique number to each rule. Rules using the vertical bar notation are distinct
rules. The number assigned to the rule appears in the description file.
The elements comprising a BODY are:
name, literal
These form the rules of the grammar: name is either a token or a non-terminal; literal stands for
itself (less the lexically required quotation marks).
semantic action
With each grammar rule, the user can associate actions to be performed each time the rule is
recognized in the input process. (Note that the word "action" can also refer to the actions of the
parser-shift, reduce, and so on.)
These actions can return values and can obtain the values returned by previous actions. These values are
kept in objects of type YYSTYPE (see %union). The result value of the action shall be kept on the parse
stack with the left-hand side of the rule, to be accessed by other reductions as part of their right-hand
side. By using the <tag> information provided in the declarations section, the code generated by yacc
can be strictly type checked and contain arbitrary information. In addition, the lexical analyzer can
provide the same kinds of values for tokens, if desired.
An action is an arbitrary C statement and as such can do input or output, call subprograms, and alter
external variables. An action is one or more C statements enclosed in curly braces '{' and '}' .
Certain pseudo-variables can be used in the action. These are macros for access to data structures known
internally to yacc.
$$
The value of the action can be set by assigning it to $$. If type checking is enabled and the type
of the value to be assigned cannot be determined, a diagnostic message may be generated.
$number
This refers to the value returned by the component specified by the token number in the right side
of a rule, reading from left to right; number can be zero or negative. If number is zero or
negative, it refers to the data associated with the name on the parser's stack preceding the
leftmost symbol of the current rule. (That is, "$0" refers to the name immediately preceding the
leftmost name in the current rule to be found on the parser's stack and "$-1" refers to the symbol
to its left.) If number refers to an element past the current point in the rule, or beyond the
bottom of the stack, the result is undefined. If type checking is enabled and the type of the
value to be assigned cannot be determined, a diagnostic message may be generated.
$<tag>number
These correspond exactly to the corresponding symbols without the tag inclusion, but allow for
strict type checking (and preclude unwanted type conversions). The effect is that the macro is
expanded to use tag to select an element from the YYSTYPE union (using dataname.tag). This is
particularly useful if number is not positive.
$<tag>$
This imposes on the reference the type of the union member referenced by tag. This construction is
applicable when a reference to a left context value occurs in the grammar, and provides yacc with
a means for selecting a type.
Actions can occur anywhere in a rule (not just at the end); an action can access values returned by
actions to its left, and in turn the value it returns can be accessed by actions to its right. An action
appearing in the middle of a rule shall be equivalent to replacing the action with a new non-terminal
symbol and adding an empty rule with that non-terminal symbol on the left-hand side. The semantic action
associated with the new rule shall be equivalent to the original action. The use of actions within rules
might introduce conflicts that would not otherwise exist.
By default, the value of a rule shall be the value of the first element in it. If the first element does
not have a type (particularly in the case of a literal) and type checking is turned on by %type, an error
message shall result.
precedence
The keyword %prec can be used to change the precedence level associated with a particular grammar
rule. Examples of this are in cases where a unary and binary operator have the same symbolic
representation, but need to be given different precedences, or where the handling of an ambiguous
if-else construction is necessary. The reserved symbol %prec can appear immediately after the
body of the grammar rule and can be followed by a token name or a literal. It shall cause the
precedence of the grammar rule to become that of the following token name or literal. The action
for the rule as a whole can follow %prec.
If a program section follows, the application shall ensure that the grammar rules are terminated by %%.
Programs Section
The programs section can include the definition of the lexical analyzer yylex(), and any other functions;
for example, those used in the actions specified in the grammar rules. It is unspecified whether the
programs section precedes or follows the semantic actions in the output file; therefore, if the
application contains any macro definitions and declarations intended to apply to the code in the semantic
actions, it shall place them within "%{ ... %}" in the declarations section.
Input Grammar
The following input to yacc yields a parser for the input to yacc. This formal syntax takes precedence
over the preceding text syntax description.
The lexical structure is defined less precisely; Lexical Structure of the Grammar defines most terms. The
correspondence between the previous terms and the tokens below is as follows.
IDENTIFIER
This corresponds to the concept of name, given previously. It also includes literals as defined
previously.
C_IDENTIFIER
This is a name, and additionally it is known to be followed by a colon. A literal cannot yield
this token.
NUMBER A string of digits (a non-negative decimal integer).
TYPE, LEFT, MARK, LCURL, RCURL
These correspond directly to %type, %left, %%, %{, and %}.
{ ... }
This indicates C-language source code, with the possible inclusion of '$' macros as discussed
previously.
/* Grammar for the input to yacc. */
/* Basic entries. */
/* The following are recognized by the lexical analyzer. */
%token IDENTIFIER /* Includes identifiers and literals */
%token C_IDENTIFIER /* identifier (but not literal)
followed by a :. */
%token NUMBER /* [0-9][0-9]* */
/* Reserved words : %type=>TYPE %left=>LEFT, and so on */
%token LEFT RIGHT NONASSOC TOKEN PREC TYPE START UNION
%token MARK /* The %% mark. */
%token LCURL /* The %{ mark. */
%token RCURL /* The %} mark. */
/* 8-bit character literals stand for themselves; */
/* tokens have to be defined for multi-byte characters. */
%start spec
%%
spec : defs MARK rules tail
;
tail : MARK
{
/* In this action, set up the rest of the file. */
}
| /* Empty; the second MARK is optional. */
;
defs : /* Empty. */
| defs def
;
def : START IDENTIFIER
| UNION
{
/* Copy union definition to output. */
}
| LCURL
{
/* Copy C code to output file. */
}
RCURL
| rword tag nlist
;
rword : TOKEN
| LEFT
| RIGHT
| NONASSOC
| TYPE
;
tag : /* Empty: union tag ID optional. */
| '<' IDENTIFIER '>'
;
nlist : nmno
| nlist nmno
;
nmno : IDENTIFIER /* Note: literal invalid with % type. */
| IDENTIFIER NUMBER /* Note: invalid with % type. */
;
/* Rule section */
rules : C_IDENTIFIER rbody prec
| rules rule
;
rule : C_IDENTIFIER rbody prec
| '|' rbody prec
;
rbody : /* empty */
| rbody IDENTIFIER
| rbody act
;
act : '{'
{
/* Copy action, translate $$, and so on. */
}
'}'
;
prec : /* Empty */
| PREC IDENTIFIER
| PREC IDENTIFIER act
| prec ';'
;
Conflicts
The parser produced for an input grammar may contain states in which conflicts occur. The conflicts occur
because the grammar is not LALR(1). An ambiguous grammar always contains at least one LALR(1) conflict.
The yacc utility shall resolve all conflicts, using either default rules or user-specified precedence
rules.
Conflicts are either shift/reduce conflicts or reduce/reduce conflicts. A shift/reduce conflict is
where, for a given state and lookahead symbol, both a shift action and a reduce action are possible. A
reduce/reduce conflict is where, for a given state and lookahead symbol, reductions by two different
rules are possible.
The rules below describe how to specify what actions to take when a conflict occurs. Not all shift/reduce
conflicts can be successfully resolved this way because the conflict may be due to something other than
ambiguity, so incautious use of these facilities can cause the language accepted by the parser to be much
different from that which was intended. The description file shall contain sufficient information to
understand the cause of the conflict. Where ambiguity is the reason either the default or explicit rules
should be adequate to produce a working parser.
The declared precedences and associativities (see Declarations Section ) are used to resolve parsing
conflicts as follows:
1. A precedence and associativity is associated with each grammar rule; it is the precedence and
associativity of the last token or literal in the body of the rule. If the %prec keyword is used, it
overrides this default. Some grammar rules might not have both precedence and associativity.
2. If there is a shift/reduce conflict, and both the grammar rule and the input symbol have precedence
and associativity associated with them, then the conflict is resolved in favor of the action (shift
or reduce) associated with the higher precedence. If the precedences are the same, then the
associativity is used; left associative implies reduce, right associative implies shift, and non-
associative implies an error in the string being parsed.
3. When there is a shift/reduce conflict that cannot be resolved by rule 2, the shift is done. Conflicts
resolved this way are counted in the diagnostic output described in Error Handling .
4. When there is a reduce/reduce conflict, a reduction is done by the grammar rule that occurs earlier
in the input sequence. Conflicts resolved this way are counted in the diagnostic output described in
Error Handling .
Conflicts resolved by precedence or associativity shall not be counted in the shift/reduce and
reduce/reduce conflicts reported by yacc on either standard error or in the description file.
Error Handling
The token error shall be reserved for error handling. The name error can be used in grammar rules. It
indicates places where the parser can recover from a syntax error. The default value of error shall be
256. Its value can be changed using a %token declaration. The lexical analyzer should not return the
value of error.
The parser shall detect a syntax error when it is in a state where the action associated with the
lookahead symbol is error. A semantic action can cause the parser to initiate error handling by executing
the macro YYERROR. When YYERROR is executed, the semantic action passes control back to the parser.
YYERROR cannot be used outside of semantic actions.
When the parser detects a syntax error, it normally calls yyerror() with the character string
"syntax error" as its argument. The call shall not be made if the parser is still recovering from a
previous error when the error is detected. The parser is considered to be recovering from a previous
error until the parser has shifted over at least three normal input symbols since the last error was
detected or a semantic action has executed the macro yyerrok. The parser shall not call yyerror() when
YYERROR is executed.
The macro function YYRECOVERING shall return 1 if a syntax error has been detected and the parser has not
yet fully recovered from it. Otherwise, zero shall be returned.
When a syntax error is detected by the parser, the parser shall check if a previous syntax error has been
detected. If a previous error was detected, and if no normal input symbols have been shifted since the
preceding error was detected, the parser checks if the lookahead symbol is an endmarker (see Interface to
the Lexical Analyzer ). If it is, the parser shall return with a non-zero value. Otherwise, the lookahead
symbol shall be discarded and normal parsing shall resume.
When YYERROR is executed or when the parser detects a syntax error and no previous error has been
detected, or at least one normal input symbol has been shifted since the previous error was detected, the
parser shall pop back one state at a time until the parse stack is empty or the current state allows a
shift over error. If the parser empties the parse stack, it shall return with a non-zero value.
Otherwise, it shall shift over error and then resume normal parsing. If the parser reads a lookahead
symbol before the error was detected, that symbol shall still be the lookahead symbol when parsing is
resumed.
The macro yyerrok in a semantic action shall cause the parser to act as if it has fully recovered from
any previous errors. The macro yyclearin shall cause the parser to discard the current lookahead token.
If the current lookahead token has not yet been read, yyclearin shall have no effect.
The macro YYACCEPT shall cause the parser to return with the value zero. The macro YYABORT shall cause
the parser to return with a non-zero value.
Interface to the Lexical Analyzer
The yylex() function is an integer-valued function that returns a token number representing the kind of
token read. If there is a value associated with the token returned by yylex() (see the discussion of tag
above), it shall be assigned to the external variable yylval.
If the parser and yylex() do not agree on these token numbers, reliable communication between them cannot
occur. For (single-byte character) literals, the token is simply the numeric value of the character in
the current character set. The numbers for other tokens can either be chosen by yacc, or chosen by the
user. In either case, the #define construct of C is used to allow yylex() to return these numbers
symbolically. The #define statements are put into the code file, and the header file if that file is
requested. The set of characters permitted by yacc in an identifier is larger than that permitted by C.
Token names found to contain such characters shall not be included in the #define declarations.
If the token numbers are chosen by yacc, the tokens other than literals shall be assigned numbers greater
than 256, although no order is implied. A token can be explicitly assigned a number by following its
first appearance in the declarations section with a number. Names and literals not defined this way
retain their default definition. All token numbers assigned by yacc shall be unique and distinct from the
token numbers used for literals and user-assigned tokens. If duplicate token numbers cause conflicts in
parser generation, yacc shall report an error; otherwise, it is unspecified whether the token assignment
is accepted or an error is reported.
The end of the input is marked by a special token called the endmarker, which has a token number that is
zero or negative. (These values are invalid for any other token.) All lexical analyzers shall return zero
or negative as a token number upon reaching the end of their input. If the tokens up to, but excluding,
the endmarker form a structure that matches the start symbol, the parser shall accept the input. If the
endmarker is seen in any other context, it shall be considered an error.
Completing the Program
In addition to yyparse() and yylex(), the functions yyerror() and main() are required to make a complete
program. The application can supply main() and yyerror(), or those routines can be obtained from the yacc
library.
Yacc Library
The following functions shall appear only in the yacc library accessible through the -l y operand to c99;
they can therefore be redefined by a conforming application:
int main(void)
This function shall call yyparse() and exit with an unspecified value. Other actions within this
function are unspecified.
int yyerror(const char *s)
This function shall write the NUL-terminated argument to standard error, followed by a <newline>.
The order of the -l y and -l l operands given to c99 is significant; the application shall either provide
its own main() function or ensure that -l y precedes -l l.
Debugging the Parser
The parser generated by yacc shall have diagnostic facilities in it that can be optionally enabled at
either compile time or at runtime (if enabled at compile time). The compilation of the runtime debugging
code is under the control of YYDEBUG, a preprocessor symbol. If YYDEBUG has a non-zero value, the
debugging code shall be included. If its value is zero, the code shall not be included.
In parsers where the debugging code has been included, the external int yydebug can be used to turn
debugging on (with a non-zero value) and off (zero value) at runtime. The initial value of yydebug shall
be zero.
When -t is specified, the code file shall be built such that, if YYDEBUG is not already defined at
compilation time (using the c99 -D YYDEBUG option, for example), YYDEBUG shall be set explicitly to 1.
When -t is not specified, the code file shall be built such that, if YYDEBUG is not already defined, it
shall be set explicitly to zero.
The format of the debugging output is unspecified but includes at least enough information to determine
the shift and reduce actions, and the input symbols. It also provides information about error recovery.
Algorithms
The parser constructed by yacc implements an LALR(1) parsing algorithm as documented in the literature.
It is unspecified whether the parser is table-driven or direct-coded.
A parser generated by yacc shall never request an input symbol from yylex() while in a state where the
only actions other than the error action are reductions by a single rule.
The literature of parsing theory defines these concepts.
Limits
The yacc utility may have several internal tables. The minimum maximums for these tables are shown in the
following table. The exact meaning of these values is implementation-defined. The implementation shall
define the relationship between these values and between them and any error messages that the
implementation may generate should it run out of space for any internal structure. An implementation may
combine groups of these resources into a single pool as long as the total available to the user does not
fall below the sum of the sizes specified by this section.
Table: Internal Limits in yacc
Minimum
Limit Maximum Description
{NTERMS} 126 Number of tokens.
{NNONTERM} 200 Number of non-terminals.
{NPROD} 300 Number of rules.
{NSTATES} 600 Number of states.
{MEMSIZE} 5200 Length of rules. The total length, in
names (tokens and non-terminals), of all
the rules of the grammar. The left-hand
side is counted for each rule, even if
it is not explicitly repeated, as
specified in Grammar Rules in yacc .
{ACTSIZE} 4000 Number of actions. "Actions" here (and
in the description file) refer to parser
actions (shift, reduce, and so on) not
to semantic actions defined in Grammar
Rules in yacc .
EXIT STATUS
The following exit values shall be returned:
0 Successful completion.
>0 An error occurred.
CONSEQUENCES OF ERRORS
If any errors are encountered, the run is aborted and yacc exits with a non-zero status. Partial code
files and header files may be produced. The summary information in the description file shall always be
produced if the -v flag is present.
The following sections are informative.
APPLICATION USAGE
Historical implementations experience name conflicts on the names yacc.tmp, yacc.acts, yacc.debug,
y.tab.c, y.tab.h, and y.output if more than one copy of yacc is running in a single directory at one
time. The -b option was added to overcome this problem. The related problem of allowing multiple yacc
parsers to be placed in the same file was addressed by adding a -p option to override the previously
hard-coded yy variable prefix.
The description of the -p option specifies the minimal set of function and variable names that cause
conflict when multiple parsers are linked together. YYSTYPE does not need to be changed. Instead, the
programmer can use -b to give the header files for different parsers different names, and then the file
with the yylex() for a given parser can include the header for that parser. Names such as yyclearerr do
not need to be changed because they are used only in the actions; they do not have linkage. It is
possible that an implementation has other names, either internal ones for implementing things such as
yyclearerr, or providing non-standard features that it wants to change with -p.
Unary operators that are the same token as a binary operator in general need their precedence adjusted.
This is handled by the %prec advisory symbol associated with the particular grammar rule defining that
unary operator. (See Grammar Rules in yacc .) Applications are not required to use this operator for
unary operators, but the grammars that do not require it are rare.
EXAMPLES
Access to the yacc library is obtained with library search operands to c99. To use the yacc library
main():
c99 y.tab.c -l y
Both the lex library and the yacc library contain main(). To access the yacc main():
c99 y.tab.c lex.yy.c -l y -l l
This ensures that the yacc library is searched first, so that its main() is used.
The historical yacc libraries have contained two simple functions that are normally coded by the
application programmer. These functions are similar to the following code:
#include <locale.h>
int main(void)
{
extern int yyparse();
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
/* If the following parser is one created by lex, the
application must be careful to ensure that LC_CTYPE
and LC_COLLATE are set to the POSIX locale. */
(void) yyparse();
return (0);
}
#include <stdio.h>
int yyerror(const char *msg)
{
(void) fprintf(stderr, "%s\n", msg);
return (0);
}
RATIONALE
The references in may be helpful in constructing the parser generator. The referenced DeRemer and
Pennello article (along with the works it references) describes a technique to generate parsers that
conform to this volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001. Work in this area continues to be done, so implementors
should consult current literature before doing any new implementations. The original Knuth article is the
theoretical basis for this kind of parser, but the tables it generates are impractically large for
reasonable grammars and should not be used. The "equivalent to" wording is intentional to assure that the
best tables that are LALR(1) can be generated.
There has been confusion between the class of grammars, the algorithms needed to generate parsers, and
the algorithms needed to parse the languages. They are all reasonably orthogonal. In particular, a parser
generator that accepts the full range of LR(1) grammars need not generate a table any more complex than
one that accepts SLR(1) (a relatively weak class of LR grammars) for a grammar that happens to be SLR(1).
Such an implementation need not recognize the case, either; table compression can yield the SLR(1) table
(or one even smaller than that) without recognizing that the grammar is SLR(1). The speed of an LR(1)
parser for any class is dependent more upon the table representation and compression (or the code
generation if a direct parser is generated) than upon the class of grammar that the table generator
handles.
The speed of the parser generator is somewhat dependent upon the class of grammar it handles. However,
the original Knuth article algorithms for constructing LR parsers were judged by its author to be
impractically slow at that time. Although full LR is more complex than LALR(1), as computer speeds and
algorithms improve, the difference (in terms of acceptable wall-clock execution time) is becoming less
significant.
Potential authors are cautioned that the referenced DeRemer and Pennello article previously cited
identifies a bug (an over-simplification of the computation of LALR(1) lookahead sets) in some of the
LALR(1) algorithm statements that preceded it to publication. They should take the time to seek out that
paper, as well as current relevant work, particularly Aho's.
The -b option was added to provide a portable method for permitting yacc to work on multiple separate
parsers in the same directory. If a directory contains more than one yacc grammar, and both grammars are
constructed at the same time (by, for example, a parallel make program), conflict results. While the
solution is not historical practice, it corrects a known deficiency in historical implementations.
Corresponding changes were made to all sections that referenced the filenames y.tab.c (now "the code
file"), y.tab.h (now "the header file"), and y.output (now "the description file").
The grammar for yacc input is based on System V documentation. The textual description shows there that
the ';' is required at the end of the rule. The grammar and the implementation do not require this. (The
use of C_IDENTIFIER causes a reduce to occur in the right place.)
Also, in that implementation, the constructs such as %token can be terminated by a semicolon, but this is
not permitted by the grammar. The keywords such as %token can also appear in uppercase, which is again
not discussed. In most places where '%' is used, '\' can be substituted, and there are alternate
spellings for some of the symbols (for example, %LEFT can be "%<" or even "\<" ).
Historically, <tag> can contain any characters except '>' , including white space, in the implementation.
However, since the tag must reference an ISO C standard union member, in practice conforming
implementations need to support only the set of characters for ISO C standard identifiers in this
context.
Some historical implementations are known to accept actions that are terminated by a period. Historical
implementations often allow '$' in names. A conforming implementation does not need to support either of
these behaviors.
Deciding when to use %prec illustrates the difficulty in specifying the behavior of yacc. There may be
situations in which the grammar is not, strictly speaking, in error, and yet yacc cannot interpret it
unambiguously. The resolution of ambiguities in the grammar can in many instances be resolved by
providing additional information, such as using %type or %union declarations. It is often easier and it
usually yields a smaller parser to take this alternative when it is appropriate.
The size and execution time of a program produced without the runtime debugging code is usually smaller
and slightly faster in historical implementations.
Statistics messages from several historical implementations include the following types of information:
n/512 terminals, n/300 non-terminals
n/600 grammar rules, n/1500 states
n shift/reduce, n reduce/reduce conflicts reported
n/350 working sets used
Memory: states, etc. n/15000, parser n/15000
n/600 distinct lookahead sets
n extra closures
n shift entries, n exceptions
n goto entries
n entries saved by goto default
Optimizer space used: input n/15000, output n/15000
n table entries, n zero
Maximum spread: n, Maximum offset: n
The report of internal tables in the description file is left implementation-defined because all aspects
of these limits are also implementation-defined. Some implementations may use dynamic allocation
techniques and have no specific limit values to report.
The format of the y.output file is not given because specification of the format was not seen to enhance
applications portability. The listing is primarily intended to help human users understand and debug the
parser; use of y.output by a conforming application script would be unusual. Furthermore, implementations
have not produced consistent output and no popular format was apparent. The format selected by the
implementation should be human-readable, in addition to the requirement that it be a text file.
Standard error reports are not specifically described because they are seldom of use to conforming
applications and there was no reason to restrict implementations.
Some implementations recognize "={" as equivalent to '{' because it appears in historical documentation.
This construction was recognized and documented as obsolete as long ago as 1978, in the referenced Yacc:
Yet Another Compiler-Compiler. This volume of IEEE Std 1003.1-2001 chose to leave it as obsolete and omit
it.
Multi-byte characters should be recognized by the lexical analyzer and returned as tokens. They should
not be returned as multi-byte character literals. The token error that is used for error recovery is
normally assigned the value 256 in the historical implementation. Thus, the token value 256, which is
used in many multi-byte character sets, is not available for use as the value of a user-defined token.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
None.
SEE ALSO
c99 , lex
COPYRIGHT
Portions of this text are reprinted and reproduced in electronic form from IEEE Std 1003.1, 2003 Edition,
Standard for Information Technology -- Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX), The Open Group Base
Specifications Issue 6, Copyright (C) 2001-2003 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Inc and The Open Group. In the event of any discrepancy between this version and the original IEEE and
The Open Group Standard, the original IEEE and The Open Group Standard is the referee document. The
original Standard can be obtained online at http://www.opengroup.org/unix/online.html .
IEEE/The Open Group 2003 YACC(P)