Provided by: grass-doc_6.4.3-3_all 
NAME
r.sun - Solar irradiance and irradiation model.
Computes direct (beam), diffuse and reflected solar irradiation raster maps for given day, latitude,
surface and atmospheric conditions. Solar parameters (e.g. sunrise, sunset times, declination,
extraterrestrial irradiance, daylight length) are saved in the map history file. Alternatively, a local
time can be specified to compute solar incidence angle and/or irradiance raster maps. The shadowing
effect of the topography is optionally incorporated.
KEYWORDS
raster, sun energy
SYNOPSIS
r.sun
r.sun help
r.sun [-sm] elevin=string [aspin=string] [aspect=float] [slopein=string] [slope=float]
[linkein=string] [lin=float] [albedo=string] [alb=float] [latin=string] [longin=string]
[coefbh=string] [coefdh=string] [horizon=string] [horizonstep=float] [incidout=string]
[beam_rad=string] [insol_time=string] [diff_rad=string] [refl_rad=string] [glob_rad=string]
day=integer [step=float] [declin=float] [time=float] [dist=float] [numpartitions=integer]
[civiltime=float] [lat=float] [--overwrite] [--verbose] [--quiet]
Flags:
-s
Incorporate the shadowing effect of terrain
-m
Use the low-memory version of the program
--overwrite
Allow output files to overwrite existing files
--verbose
Verbose module output
--quiet
Quiet module output
Parameters:
elevin=string
Name of the input elevation raster map [meters]
aspin=string
Name of the input aspect map (terrain aspect or azimuth of the solar panel) [decimal degrees]
aspect=float
A single value of the orientation (aspect), 270 is south
Default: 270
slopein=string
Name of the input slope raster map (terrain slope or solar panel inclination) [decimal degrees]
slope=float
A single value of inclination (slope)
Default: 0.0
linkein=string
Name of the Linke atmospheric turbidity coefficient input raster map [-]
lin=float
A single value of the Linke atmospheric turbidity coefficient [-]
Default: 3.0
albedo=string
Name of the ground albedo coefficient input raster map [-]
alb=float
A single value of the ground albedo coefficient [-]
Default: 0.2
latin=string
Name of input raster map containing latitudes [decimal degrees]
longin=string
Name of input raster map containing longitudes [decimal degrees]
coefbh=string
Name of real-sky beam radiation coefficient (thick cloud) input raster map [0-1]
coefdh=string
Name of real-sky diffuse radiation coefficient (haze) input raster map [0-1]
horizon=string
The horizon information input map prefix
horizonstep=float
Angle step size for multidirectional horizon [degrees]
incidout=string
Output incidence angle raster map (mode 1 only)
beam_rad=string
Output beam irradiance [W.m-2] (mode 1) or irradiation raster map [Wh.m-2.day-1] (mode 2)
insol_time=string
Output insolation time raster map [h] (mode 2 only)
diff_rad=string
Output diffuse irradiance [W.m-2] (mode 1) or irradiation raster map [Wh.m-2.day-1] (mode 2)
refl_rad=string
Output ground reflected irradiance [W.m-2] (mode 1) or irradiation raster map [Wh.m-2.day-1] (mode 2)
glob_rad=string
Output global (total) irradiance/irradiation [W.m-2] (mode 1) or irradiance/irradiation raster map
[Wh.m-2.day-1] (mode 2)
day=integer
No. of day of the year (1-365)
Options: 1-365
step=float
Time step when computing all-day radiation sums [decimal hours]
Default: 0.5
declin=float
Declination value (overriding the internally computed value) [radians]
time=float
Local (solar) time (to be set for mode 1 only) [decimal hours]
Options: 0-24
dist=float
Sampling distance step coefficient (0.5-1.5)
Default: 1.0
numpartitions=integer
Read the input files in this number of chunks
Default: 1
civiltime=float
Civil time zone value, if none, the time will be local solar time
lat=float
This does nothing. It is retained for backwards compatibility
DESCRIPTION
r.sun computes beam (direct), diffuse and ground reflected solar irradiation raster maps for given day,
latitude, surface and atmospheric conditions. Solar parameters (e.g. time of sunrise and sunset,
declination, extraterrestrial irradiance, daylight length) are stored in the resultant maps' history
files. Alternatively, the local time can be specified to compute solar incidence angle and/or irradiance
raster maps. The shadowing effect of the topography is optionally incorporated. This can be done either
by calculating the shadowing effect directly from the digital elevation model or using rasters of the
horizon height which is much faster. The horizon rasters can be constructed using r.horizon.
For latitude-longitude coordinates it requires that the elevation map is in meters. The rules are:
lat/lon coordinates: elevation in meters;
Other coordinates: elevation in the same unit as the easting-northing coordinates.
The solar geometry of the model is based on the works of Krcho (1990), later improved by Jenco (1992).
The equations describing Sun – Earth position as well as an interaction of the solar radiation with
atmosphere were originally based on the formulas suggested by Kitler and Mikler (1986). This component
was considerably updated by the results and suggestions of the working group co-ordinated by Scharmer and
Greif (2000) (this algorithm might be replaced by SOLPOS algorithm-library included in GRASS within
r.sunmask command). The model computes all three components of global radiation (beam, diffuse and
reflected) for the clear sky conditions, i.e. not taking into consideration the spatial and temporal
variation of clouds. The extent and spatial resolution of the modelled area, as well as integration over
time, are limited only by the memory and data storage resources. The model is built to fulfil user needs
in various fields of science (hydrology, climatology, ecology and environmental sciences, photovoltaics,
engineering, etc.) for continental, regional up to the landscape scales.
As an option the model considers a shadowing effect of the local topography. The r.sun program works in
two modes. In the first mode it calculates for the set local time a solar incidence angle [degrees] and
solar irradiance values [W.m-2]. In the second mode daily sums of solar radiation [Wh.m-2.day-1] are
computed within a set day. By a scripting the two modes can be used separately or in a combination to
provide estimates for any desired time interval. The model accounts for sky obstruction by local relief
features. Several solar parameters are saved in the resultant maps' history files, which may be viewed
with the r.info command.
The solar incidence angle raster map incidout is computed specifying elevation raster map elevin, aspect
raster map aspin, slope steepness raster map slopin, given the day day and local time time. There is no
need to define latitude for locations with known and defined projection/coordinate system (check it with
the g.proj command). If you have undefined projection, (x,y) system, etc. then the latitude can be
defined explicitly for large areas by input raster map latin with interpolated latitude values. All input
raster maps must be floating point (FCELL) raster maps. Null data in maps are excluded from the
computation (and also speeding-up the computation), so each output raster map will contain null data in
cells according to all input raster maps. The user can use r.null command to create/reset null file for
your input raster maps.
The specified day day is the number of the day of the general year where January 1 is day no.1 and
December 31 is 365. Time time must be a local (solar) time (i.e. NOT a zone time, e.g. GMT, CET) in
decimal system, e.g. 7.5 (= 7h 30m A.M.), 16.1 = 4h 6m P.M..
Setting the solar declination declin by user is an option to override the value computed by the internal
routine for the day of the year. The value of geographical latitude can be set as a constant for the
whole computed region or, as an option, a grid representing spatially distributed values over a large
region. The geographical latitude must be also in decimal system with positive values for northern
hemisphere and negative for southern one. In similar principle the Linke turbidity factor (linkein, lin
) and ground albedo (albedo, alb) can be set.
Besides clear-sky radiations, the user can compute a real-sky radiation (beam, diffuse) using coefbh and
coefdh input raster maps defining the fraction of the respective clear-sky radiations reduced by
atmospheric factors (e.g. cloudiness). The value is between 0-1. Usually these coefficients can be
obtained from a long-terms meteorological measurements provided as raster maps with spatial distribution
of these coefficients separately for beam and diffuse radiation (see Suri and Hofierka, 2004, section
3.2).
The solar irradiation or irradiance raster maps beam_rad, diff_rad, refl_rad are computed for a given day
day, latitude latin, elevation elevin, slope slopein and aspect aspin raster maps. For convenience, the
output raster given as glob_rad will output the sum of the three radiation components. The program uses
the Linke atmosphere turbidity factor and ground albedo coefficient. A default, single value of Linke
factor is lin=3.0 and is near the annual average for rural-city areas. The Linke factor for an absolutely
clear atmosphere is lin=1.0. See notes below to learn more about this factor. The incidence solar angle
is the angle between horizon and solar beam vector.
The solar radiation maps for a given day are computed by integrating the relevant irradiance between
sunrise and sunset times for that day. The user can set a finer or coarser time step used for all-day
radiation calculations with the step option. The default value of step is 0.5 hour. Larger steps (e.g.
1.0-2.0) can speed-up calculations but produce less reliable (and more jagged) results. As the sun moves
through approx. 15° of the sky in an hour, the default step of half an hour will produce 7.5°
steps in the data. For relatively smooth output with the sun placed for every degree of movement in the
sky you should set the step to 4 minutes or less. step=0.05 is equivalent to every 3 minutes. Of course
setting the time step to be very fine proportionally increases the module's running time.
The output units are in Wh per squared meter per given day [Wh/(m*m)/day]. The incidence angle and
irradiance/irradiation maps can be computed without shadowing influence of relief by default or they can
be computed with this influence using the flag -s. In mountainous areas this can lead to very different
results! The user should be aware that taken into account the shadowing effect of relief can slow down
the speed of computing especially when the sun altitude is low. When considering shadowing effect (flag
-s) speed and precision computing can be controlled by a parameter dist which defines the sampling
density at which the visibility of a grid cell is computed in the direction of a path of the solar flow.
It also defines the method by which the obstacle's altitude is computed. When choosing dist less than 1.0
(i.e. sampling points will be computed at dist * cellsize distance), r.sun takes altitude from the
nearest grid point. Values above 1.0 will use the maximum altitude value found in the nearest 4
surrounding grid points. The default value dist=1.0 should give reasonable results for most cases (e.g.
on DEM). Dist value defines a multiplying coefficient for sampling distance. This basic sampling distance
equals to the arithmetic average of both cell sizes. The reasonable values are in the range 0.5-1.5. The
values below 0.5 will decrease and values above 1.0 will increase the computing speed. Values greater
than 2.0 may produce estimates with lower accuracy in highly dissected relief. The fully shadowed areas
are written to the output maps as zero values. Areas with NULL data are considered as no barrier with
shadowing effect .
The maps' history files are generated containing the following listed parameters used in the computation:
- Solar constant 1367 W.m-2
- Extraterrestrial irradiance on a plane perpendicular to the solar beam [W.m-2]
- Day of the year
- Declination [radians]
- Decimal hour (Alternative 1 only)
- Sunrise and sunset (min-max) over a horizontal plane
- Daylight lengths
- Geographical latitude (min-max)
- Linke turbidity factor (min-max)
- Ground albedo (min-max)
The user can use a nice shellcript with variable day to compute radiation for some time interval within
the year (e.g. vegetation or winter period). Elevation, aspect and slope input values should not be
reclassified into coarser categories. This could lead to incorrect results.
OPTIONS
Currently, there are two modes of r.sun. In the first mode it calculates solar incidence angle and solar
irradiance raster maps using the set local time. In the second mode daily sums of solar irradiation
[Wh.m-2.day-1] are computed for a specified day.
NOTES
Solar energy is an important input parameter in different models concerning energy industry, landscape,
vegetation, evapotranspiration, snowmelt or remote sensing. Solar rays incidence angle maps can be
effectively used in radiometric and topographic corrections in mountainous and hilly terrain where very
accurate investigations should be performed.
The clear-sky solar radiation model applied in the r.sun is based on the work undertaken for development
of European Solar Radiation Atlas (Scharmer and Greif 2000, Page et al. 2001, Rigollier 2001). The clear
sky model estimates the global radiation from the sum of its beam, diffuse and reflected components. The
main difference between solar radiation models for inclined surfaces in Europe is the treatment of the
diffuse component. In the European climate this component is often the largest source of estimation
error. Taking into consideration the existing models and their limitation the European Solar Radiation
Atlas team selected the Muneer (1990) model as it has a sound theoretical basis and thus more potential
for later improvement.
Details of underlying equations used in this program can be found in the reference literature cited below
or book published by Neteler and Mitasova: Open Source GIS: A GRASS GIS Approach (published in Kluwer
Academic Publishers in 2002).
Average monthly values of the Linke turbidity coefficient for a mild climate (see reference literature
for your study area):
MonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecannual
| mountains | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.8 | 1.9 | 2.0 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.3 |
2.1 | 1.8 | 1.6 | 1.5 | 1.90
| rural | 2.1 | 2.2 | 2.5 | 2.9 | 3.2 | 3.4 | 3.5 | 3.3 |
2.9 | 2.6 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 2.75
| city | 3.1 | 3.2 | 3.5 | 4.0 | 4.2 | 4.3 | 4.4 | 4.3 |
4.0 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 3.1 | 3.75
| industrial | 4.1 | 4.3 | 4.7 | 5.3 | 5.5 | 5.7 | 5.8 | 5.7 |
5.3 | 4.9 | 4.5 | 4.2 | 5.00
Planned improvements include the use of the SOLPOS algorithm for solar geometry calculations and internal
computation of aspect and slope.
Solar time
By default r.sun calculates times as true solar time, whereby solar noon is always exactly 12 o'clock
everywhere in the current region. Depending on where the zone of interest is located in the related time
zone, this may cause differences of up to an hour, in some cases (like Western Spain) even more. On top
of this, the offset varies during the year according to the Equation of Time.
To overcome this problem, the user can use the option civiltime= in r.sun to make it use real-world (wall
clock) time. For example, for Central Europe the timezone offset is +1, +2 when daylight saving time is
in effect.
Shadow maps
A map of shadows can be extracted from the solar incidence angle map (incidout). Areas with zero values
are shadowed. The -s flag has to be used.
Large maps and out of memory problems
With a large number or columns and rows, r.sun can consume significant amount of memory. While output
raster maps are not partitionable, the input raster maps are using the numpartitions parameter. In case
of out of memory error (ERROR: G_malloc: out of memory), the numpartitions parameter can be used to run a
segmented calculation which consumes less memory during the computations. The amount of memory by r.sun
is estimated as follows:
# without input raster map partitioning:
# memory requirements: 4 bytes per raster cell
# rows,cols: rows and columns of current region (find out with g.region)
# IR: number of input raster maps without horizon maps
# OR: number of output raster maps
memory_bytes = rows*cols*(IR*4 + horizonsteps + OR*4)
# with input raster map partitioning:
memory_bytes = rows*cols*((IR*4+horizonsteps)/numpartitions + OR*4)
EXAMPLE
Calculation of the integrated daily irradiation for a region in North-Carolina for a given day of the
year at 30m resolution. Here day 172 (i.e., 21 June in non-leap years):
g.region rast=elev_ned_30m -p
# considering cast shadows (-s)
r.sun -s elev_ned_30m lin=2.5 alb=0.2 day=172 \
beam_rad=b172 diff_rad=d172 \
refl_rad=r172 insol_time=it172
d.mon x0
# show irradiation raster map [Wh.m-2.day-1]
d.rast.leg b172
# show insolation time raster map [h]
d.rast.leg it172
SEE ALSO
r.horizon, r.slope.aspect, r.sunmask, g.proj, r.null, v.surf.rst
REFERENCES
Hofierka, J., Suri, M. (2002): The solar radiation model for Open source GIS:
implementation and applications. International GRASS users conference in Trento, Italy,
September 2002. (PDF)
Hofierka, J. (1997). Direct solar radiation modelling within an open GIS environment.
Proceedings of JEC-GI'97 conference in Vienna, Austria, IOS Press Amsterdam, 575-584.
Jenco, M. (1992). Distribution of direct solar radiation on georelief and its modelling by
means of complex digital model of terrain (in Slovak). Geograficky casopis, 44, 342-355.
Kasten, F. (1996). The Linke turbidity factor based on improved values of the integral
Rayleigh optical thickness. Solar Energy, 56 (3), 239-244.
Kasten, F., Young, A. T. (1989). Revised optical air mass tables and approximation formula.
Applied Optics, 28, 4735-4738.
Kittler, R., Mikler, J. (1986): Basis of the utilization of solar radiation (in Slovak).
VEDA, Bratislava, p. 150.
Krcho, J. (1990). Morfometrická analza a digitálne modely georeliéfu
(Morphometric analysis and digital models of georelief, in Slovak). VEDA, Bratislava.
Muneer, T. (1990). Solar radiation model for Europe. Building services engineering research
and technology, 11, 4, 153-163.
Neteler, M., Mitasova, H. (2002): Open Source GIS: A GRASS GIS Approach, Kluwer Academic
Publishers. (Appendix explains formula; r.sun script download)
Page, J. ed. (1986). Prediction of solar radiation on inclined surfaces. Solar energy R&D
in the European Community, series F – Solar radiation data, Dordrecht (D. Reidel), 3,
71, 81-83.
Page, J., Albuisson, M., Wald, L. (2001). The European solar radiation atlas: a valuable
digital tool. Solar Energy, 71, 81-83.
Rigollier, Ch., Bauer, O., Wald, L. (2000). On the clear sky model of the ESRA - European
Solar radiation Atlas - with respect to the Heliosat method. Solar energy, 68, 33-48.
Scharmer, K., Greif, J., eds., (2000). The European solar radiation atlas, Vol. 2: Database
and exploitation software. Paris (Les Presses de l’ École des Mines).
Joint Research Centre: GIS solar radiation database for Europe and Solar radiation and GIS
AUTHORS
Jaroslav Hofierka, GeoModel, s.r.o. Bratislava, Slovakia
Marcel Suri, GeoModel, s.r.o. Bratislava, Slovakia
Thomas Huld, JRC, Italy
© 2007, Jaroslav Hofierka, Marcel Suri. This program is free software under the GNU General Public
License (>=v2) hofierka@geomodel.sk suri@geomodel.sk
Last changed: $Date: 2013-06-16 05:08:46 +0200 (Sun, 16 Jun 2013) $
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