focal (7) elvish-language.7.gz
Introduction
This document describes the Elvish programming language. It tries to be both a specification and an
advanced tutorial; if it turns out to be impossible to do these two things at the same time, this
document will evolve to a formal specification, and more readable tutorials will be created.
Examples for one construct might use constructs that have not yet been introduced, so some familiarity
with the language is assumed. If you are new to Elvish, start with the learning materials (../learn/).
Note to the reader. Like Elvish itself, this document is a work in progress. Some materials are
missing, and some are documented sparingly. If you have found something that should be improved -- even
if there is already a "TODO" for it -- please feel free to ask on any of the chat channels advertised on
the homepage (..). Some developer will explain to you, and then update the document. Question-driven
documentation :)
Syntax Convention
Elvish source code must be UTF-8-encoded. In this document, character is a synonym of Unicode codepoint
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_point) or its UTF-8 encoding.
Also like most shells, Elvish uses whitespaces -- instead of commas, periods or semicolons -- to separate
constructs. In this document, an inline whitespace is any of:
• A space (ASCII 0x20) or tab (ASCII 0x9, "\t");
• A comment: starting with # and ending before the next newline or end of file;
• Line continuation: a backslash followed by a newline.
A whitespace is either an inline whitespace or a newline ("\n").
Like most shells, Elvish has a syntax structure that can be divided into two levels: a statement level
and an expression level. For instance, on the expression level, "echo" is a quoted string that evaluates
to echo; but on the statement level, it is a command that outputs an empty line. This distinction is
often clear from the context and sometime the verb used. A statements executes to produce side effects;
an expression evaluates to some values. (The traditional terms for the two levels are "commands" and
"words", but those terms are quite ambiguous.)
String
The most common data structure in shells is the string. String literals can be quoted or unquoted
(barewords).
Quoted
There are two types of quoted strings in Elvish, single-quoted strings and double-quoted strings.
In single-quoted strings, all characters represent themselves, except single quotes, which need to be
doubled. For instance, '*\' evaluates to *\, and 'it''s' evaluates to it's.
In double-quoted strings, the backslash \ introduces a escape sequence. For instance, "\n" evaluates to
a newline; "\\" evaluates to a backslash; invalid escape sequences like "\*" result in a syntax error.
TODO: Document the full list of supported escape sequences.
Unlike most other shells, double-quoted strings do not support interpolation. For instance, "$USER"
simply evaluates to the string $USER. To get a similar effect, simply concatenate strings: instead of
"my name is $name", write "my name is "$name. Under the hood this is a compound expression.
Barewords
If a string only consists of bareword characters, it can be written without any quote; this is called a
bareword. Examples are a.txt, long-bareword, and /usr/local/bin. The set of bareword characters
include:
• ASCII letters (a-z and A-Z) and numbers (0-9);
• The symbols -_:%+,./@!;
• Non-ASCII codepoints that are printable, as defined by unicode.IsPrint
(https://godoc.org/unicode#IsPrint) in Go's standard library.
The following are bareword characters depending on their position:
• The tilde ~, unless it appears at the beginning of a compound expression, in which case it is subject
to tilde expansion;
• The equal sign =, unless it is used for terminating map keys or option keys, or denoting assignments or
temporary assignments.
Unlike traditional shells, an unquoted backslash \ does not escape metacharacters; use quoted strings
instead. For instance, to echo a star, write echo "*" or echo '*', not echo \*. Unquote backslashes are
now only used in line continuations; their use elsewhere is reserved will cause a syntax error.
Notes
The three syntaxes above all evaluate to strings, and they are interchangeable. For instance, xyz, 'xyz'
and "xyz" are different syntaxes for the same string, and they are always equivalent.
Elvish does have a dedicated float64 number type, but it does not have a literal syntax; instead it needs
to be constructed using a function call, as in put (float64 42); the argument 42 is a string. For
convenience, all Elvish functions that expect number arguments also accept strings that can be parsed as
a number, so explicit number constructors are not needed often.
List and Map
Lists and maps are the basic container types in Elvish.
List
Lists are surround by square brackets [ ], with elements separated by whitespaces. Examples:
~> put [lorem ipsum]
▶ [lorem ipsum]
~> put [lorem
ipsum
foo
bar]
▶ [lorem ipsum foo bar]
Note that commas have no special meanings and are valid bareword characters, so don't use them to
separate elements:
~> li = [a, b]
~> put $li
▶ [a, b]
~> put $li[0]
▶ a,
Map
Maps are also surrounded by square brackets; a key/value pair is written &key=value (reminiscent to HTTP
query parameters), and pairs are separated by whitespaces. Whitespaces are allowed after =, but not
before =. Examples:
~> put [&foo=bar &lorem=ipsum]
▶ [&foo=bar &lorem=ipsum]
~> put [&a= 10
&b= 23
&sum= (+ 10 23)]
▶ [&a=10 &b=23 &sum=33]
An empty map is written as [&].
Variable
Variables are named holders of values. The following characters can be used in variable names (a subset
of bareword characters):
• ASCII letters (a-z and A-Z) and numbers (0-9);
• The symbols -_:~. The colon : is special; it is normally used for separating namespaces or denoting
namespace variables;
• Non-ASCII codepoints that are printable, as defined by unicode.IsPrint
(https://godoc.org/unicode#IsPrint) in Go's standard library.
In most other shells, variables can map directly to environmental variables: $PATH is the same as the
PATH environment variable. This is not the case in Elvish. Instead, environment variables are put in a
dedicated E: namespace; the environment variable PATH is known as $E:PATH. The $PATH variable, on the
other hand, does not exist initially, and if you have defined it, only lives in a certain lexical scope
within the Elvish interpreter.
You will notice that variables sometimes have a leading dollar $, and sometimes not. The tradition is
that they do when they are used for their values, and do not otherwise (e.g. in assignment). This is
consistent with most other shells.
Assignment
A variable can be assigned by writing its name, =, and the value to assign. There must be inline
whitespaces both before and after =. Example:
~> foo = bar
You can assign multiple values to multiple variables simultaneously, simply by writing several variable
names (separated by inline whitespaces) on the left-hand side, and several values on the right-hand side:
~> x y = 3 4
Referencing
Use a variable by adding $ before the name:
~> foo = bar
~> x y = 3 4
~> put $foo
▶ bar
~> put $x
▶ 3
Variables must be assigned before use. Attempting to use an unassigned variable causes a compilation
error:
~> echo $x
Compilation error: variable $x not found
[tty], line 1: echo $x
~> { echo $x }
Compilation error: variable $x not found
[tty], line 1: { echo $x }
Explosion and Rest Variable
If a variable contains a list value, you can add @ before the variable name to get all its element
values. This is called exploding the variable:
~> li = [lorem ipsum foo bar]
~> put $li
▶ [lorem ipsum foo bar]
~> put $@li
▶ lorem
▶ ipsum
▶ foo
▶ bar
(This notation is restricted to exploding variables. To explode arbitrary values, use the builtin
explode (builtin.html#explode) command.)
When assigning variables, if you prefix the name of the last variable with @, it gets assigned a list
containing all remaining values. That variable is called a rest variable. Example:
~> a b @rest = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
~> put $a $b $rest
▶ 1
▶ 2
▶ [3 4 5 6 7]
Schematically this is a reverse operation to variable explosion, which is why they share the @ sign.
Temporary Assignment
You can prepend a command with temporary assignments, which gives variables temporarily values during the
execution of that command.
In the following example, $x and $y are temporarily assigned 100 and 200:
~> x y = 1 2
~> x=100 y=200 + $x $y
▶ 300
~> echo $x $y
1 2
In contrary to normal assignments, there should be no whitespaces around the equal sign =. To have
multiple variables in the left-hand side, use braces:
~> x y = 1 2
~> fn f { put 100 200 }
~> {x,y}=(f) + $x $y
▶ 300
If you use a previously undefined variable in a temporary assignment, its value will become the empty
string after the command finishes. This behavior will likely change; don't rely on it.
Since ordinary assignments are also a kind of command, they can also be prepended with temporary
assignments:
~> x=1
~> x=100 y = (+ 133 $x)
~> put $x $y
▶ 1
▶ 233
Temporary assignments must all appear before the command. As soon as something that is not a temporary
assignments is parsed, Elvish no longer parses temporary assignments. For instance, in x=1 echo x=1, the
second x=1 is not a temporary assignment, but a bareword.
Note: Elvish's behavior differs from bash (or zsh) in one important place. In bash, temporary
assignments to variables do not affect their direct appearance in the command:
bash-4.4$ x=1
bash-4.4$ x=100 echo $x
1
Scoping rule
Elvish has lexical scoping. Scopes are introduced by lambdas or user-defined modules.
When you use a variable, Elvish looks for it in the current lexical scope, then its parent lexical scope
and so forth, until the outermost scope:
~> x = 12
~> { echo $x } # $x is in the global scope
12
~> { y = bar; { echo $y } } # $y is in the outer scope
bar
If a variable is not in any of the lexical scopes, Elvish tries to resolve it in the builtin: namespace,
and if that also fails, cause an error:
~> echo $pid # builtin
36613
~> echo $nonexistent
Compilation error: variable $nonexistent not found
[interactive], line 1:
echo $nonexistent
Note that Elvish resolves all variables in a code chunk before starting to execute any of it; that is why
the error message above says compilation error. This can be more clearly observed in the following
example:
~> echo pre-error; echo $nonexistent
Compilation error: variable $nonexistent not found
[tty], line 1: echo pre-error; echo $nonexistent
When you assign a variable, Elvish does a similar searching. If the variable cannot be found, it will be
created in the current scope:
~> x = 12
~> { x = 13 } # assigns to x in the global scope
~> echo $x
13
~> { z = foo } # creates z in the inner scope
~> echo $z
Compilation error: variable $z not found
[tty], line 1: echo $z
One implication of this behavior is that Elvish will not shadow your variable in outer scopes.
There is a local: namespace that always refers to the current scope, and by using it it is possible to
force Elvish to shadow variables:
~> x = 12
~> { local:x = 13; echo $x } # force shadowing
13
~> echo $x
12
After force shadowing, you can still access the variable in the outer scope using the up: namespace,
which always skips the innermost scope:
~> x = 12
~> { local:x = 14; echo $x $up:x }
14 12
The local: and up: namespaces can also be used on unshadowed variables, although they are not useful in
those cases:
~> foo = a
~> { echo $up:foo } # $up:foo is the same as $foo
a
~> { bar = b; echo $local:bar } # $local:bar is the same as $bar
b
It is not possible to refer to a specific outer scope.
You cannot create new variables in the builtin: namespace, although existing variables in it can be
assigned new values.
Lambda
A function literal, or lambda, is a code chunk surrounded by curly braces:
~> f = { echo "Inside a lambda" }
~> put $f
▶ <closure 0x18a1a340>
One or more whitespace characters after { is required: Elvish relies on the presence of whitespace to
disambiguate lambda literals and braced lists. It is good style to put some whitespace before the
closing } as well, but this is not required by the syntax.
Functions are first-class values in Elvish. They can be kept in variables, used as arguments, output on
the value channel, and embedded in other data structures. They can also be used as commands:
~> $f
Inside a lambda
~> { echo "Inside a literal lambda" }
Inside a literal lambda
The last command resembles a code block in C-like languages in syntax. But under the hood, it defines a
function on the fly and calls it immediately.
Functions defined using the basic syntax above do not accept any arguments or options. To do so, you
need to write a signature.
Signature
A signature specifies the arguments a function can accept:
~> f = [a b]{ put $b $a }
~> $f lorem ipsum
▶ ipsum
▶ lorem
There should be no space between ] and {; otherwise Elvish will parse the signature as a list, followed
by a lambda without signature:
~> put [a]{ nop }
▶ <closure 0xc420153d80>
~> put [a] { nop }
▶ [a]
▶ <closure 0xc42004a480>
Like in the left hand of assignments, if you prefix the last argument with @, it becomes a rest argument,
and its value is a list containing all the remaining arguments:
~> f = [a @rest]{ put $a $rest }
~> $f lorem
▶ lorem
▶ []
~> $f lorem ipsum dolar sit
▶ lorem
▶ [ipsum dolar sit]
You can also declare options in the signature. The syntax is &name=default (like a map pair), where
default is the default value for the option:
~> f = [&opt=default]{ echo "Value of $opt is "$opt }
~> $f
Value of $opt is default
~> $f &opt=foobar
Value of $opt is foobar
Options must have default values: Options should be optional.
If you call a function with too few arguments, too many arguments or unknown options, an exception is
thrown:
~> [a]{ echo $a } foo bar
Exception: need 1 arguments, got 2
[tty], line 1: [a]{ echo $a } foo bar
~> [a b]{ echo $a $b } foo
Exception: need 2 arguments, got 1
[tty], line 1: [a b]{ echo $a $b } foo
~> [a b @rest]{ echo $a $b $rest } foo
Exception: need 2 or more arguments, got 1
[tty], line 1: [a b @rest]{ echo $a $b $rest } foo
~> [&k=v]{ echo $k } &k2=v2
Exception: unknown option k2
[tty], line 1: [&k=v]{ echo $k } &k2=v2
Closure Semantics
User-defined functions are also known as "closures", because they have closure semantics
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_(computer_programming)).
In the following example, the make-adder function outputs two functions, both referring to a local
variable $n. Closure semantics means that:
1. Both functions can continue to refer to the $n variable after make-adder has returned.
2. Multiple calls to the make-adder function generates distinct instances of the $n variables.
~> fn make-adder {
n = 0
put { put $n } { n = (+ $n 1) }
}
~> getter adder = (make-adder)
~> $getter # $getter outputs $n
▶ 0
~> $adder # $adder increments $n
~> $getter # $getter and $setter refer to the same $n
▶ 1
~> getter2 adder2 = (make-adder)
~> $getter2 # $getter2 and $getter refer to different $n
▶ 0
~> $getter
▶ 1
Variables that get "captured" in closures are called upvalues; this is why the pseudo-namespace for
variables in outer scopes is called up:. When capturing upvalues, Elvish only captures the variables
that are used. In the following example, $m is not an upvalue of $g because it is not used:
~> fn f { m = 2; n = 3; put { put $n } }
~> g = (f)
This effect is not currently observable, but will become so when namespaces become introspectable
(https://github.com/elves/elvish/issues/492).
Indexing
Indexing is done by putting one or more index expressions in brackets [] after a value.
List Indexing
Lists can be indexed with any of the following:
• A non-negative integer, an offset counting from the beginning of the list. For example, $li[0] is the
first element of $li.
• A negative integer, an offset counting from the back of the list. For instance, $li[-1] is the last
element $li.
• A slice $a:$b, where both $a and $b are integers. The result is sublist of $li[$a] up to, but not
including, $li[$b]. For instance, $li[4:7] equals [$li[4] $li[5] $li[6]], while $li[1:-1] contains all
elements from $li except the first and last one.
Both integers may be omitted; $a defaults to 0 while $b defaults to the length of the list. For
instance, $li[:2] is equivalent to $li[0:2], $li[2:] is equivalent to $li[2:(count $li)], and $li[:]
makes a copy of $li. The last form is rarely useful, as lists are immutable.
Note that the slice needs to be a single string, so there cannot be any spaces within the slice. For
instance, $li[2:10] cannot be written as $li[2: 10]; the latter contains two indicies and is equivalent
to $li[2:] $li[10] (see Multiple Indicies).
• Not yet implemented: The string @. The result is all the values in the list. Note that this is not
the same as :: if $li has 10 elements, $li[@] evaluates to 10 values (all the elements in the list),
while $li[:] evaluates to just one value (a copy of the list).
When used on a variable like $li, it is equivalent to the explosion construct $li[@]. It is useful,
however, when used on other constructs, like output capture or other
Examples:
~> li = [lorem ipsum foo bar]
~> put $li[0]
▶ lorem
~> put $li[-1]
▶ bar
~> put $li[0:2]
▶ [lorem ipsum]
(Negative indicies and slicing are borrowed from Python.)
String indexing
NOTE: String indexing will likely change.
Strings should always be UTF-8, and they can indexed by byte indicies at which codepoints start, and
indexing results in the codepoint that starts there. This is best explained with examples:
• In the string elv, every codepoint is encoded with only one byte, so 0, 1, 2 are all valid indices:
~> put elv[0]
▶ e
~> put elv[1]
▶ l
~> put elv[2]
▶ v
• In the string 世界, each codepoint is encoded with three bytes. The first codepoint occupies byte 0
through 2, and the second occupies byte 3 through 5. Hence valid indicies are 0 and 3:
~> put 世界[0]
▶ 世
~> put 世界[3]
▶ 界
Strings can also be indexed by slices.
(This idea of indexing codepoints by their byte positions is borrowed from Julia.)
Map indexing
Maps are simply indexed by their keys. There is no slice indexing, and : does not have a special
meaning. Examples:
~> map = [&a=lorem &b=ipsum &a:b=haha]
~> echo $map[a]
lorem
~> echo $map[a:b]
haha
Multiple Indices
If you put multiple values in the index, you get multiple values: $li[x y z] is equivalent to $li[x]
$li[y] $li[z]. This applies to all indexable values. Examples:
~> put elv[0 2 0:2]
▶ e
▶ v
▶ el
~> put [lorem ipsum foo bar][0 2 0:2]
▶ lorem
▶ foo
▶ [lorem ipsum]
~> put [&a=lorem &b=ipsum &a:b=haha][a a:b]
▶ lorem
▶ haha
Output Capture
Output capture is formed by putting parentheses () around a code chunk. It redirects the output of the
chunk into an internal pipe, and evaluates to all the values that have been output.
~> + 1 10 100
▶ 111
~> x = (+ 1 10 100)
~> put $x
▶ 111
~> put lorem ipsum
▶ lorem
▶ ipsum
~> x y = (put lorem ipsum)
~> put $x
▶ lorem
~> put $y
▶ ipsum
If the chunk outputs bytes, Elvish strips the last newline (if any), and split them by newlines, and
consider each line to be one string value:
~> put (echo "a\nb")
▶ a
▶ b
Note 1. Only the last newline is ever removed, so empty lines are preserved; (echo "a\n") evaluates to
two values, "a" and "".
Note 2. One consequence of this mechanism is that you can not distinguish outputs that lack a trailing
newline from outputs that have one; (echo what) evaluates to the same value as (print what). If such a
distinction is needed, use slurp (builtin.html#slurp) to preserve the original bytes output.
If the chunk outputs both values and bytes, the values of output capture will contain both value outputs
and lines. However, the ordering between value output and byte output might not agree with the order in
which they happened:
~> put (put a; echo b) # value order need not be the same as output order
▶ b
▶ a
Exception Capture
Exception capture is formed by putting ?() around a code chunk. It runs the chunk and evaluates to the
exception it throws.
~> fail bad
Exception: bad
Traceback:
[interactive], line 1:
fail bad
~> put ?(fail bad)
▶ ?(fail bad)
If there was no error, it evaluates to the special value $ok:
~> nop
~> put ?(nop)
▶ $ok
Exceptions are booleanly false and $ok is booleanly true. This is useful in if (introduced later):
if ?(test -d ./a) {
# ./a is a directory
}
Exception captures do not affect the output of the code chunk. You can combine output capture and
exception capture:
output = (error = ?(commands-that-may-fail))
Tilde Expansion
Tildes are special when they appear at the beginning of an expression (the exact meaning of "expression"
will be explained later). The string after it, up to the first / or the end of the word, is taken as a
user name; and they together evaluate to the home directory of that user. If the user name is empty, the
current user is assumed.
In the following example, the home directory of the current user is /home/xiaq, while that of the root
user is /root:
~> put ~
▶ /home/xiaq
~> put ~root
▶ /root
~> put ~/xxx
▶ /home/xiaq/xxx
~> put ~root/xxx
▶ /root/xxx
Note that tildes are not special when they appear elsewhere in a word:
~> put a~root
▶ a~root
If you need them to be, surround them with braces (the reason this works will be explained later):
~> put a{~root}
▶ a/root
Wildcard Patterns
Wildcard patterns are patterns containing wildcards, and they evaluate to all filenames they match.
We will use this directory tree in examples:
.x.conf
a.cc
ax.conf
foo.cc
d/
|__ .x.conf
|__ ax.conf
|__ y.cc
.d2/
|__ .x.conf
|__ ax.conf
Elvish supports the following wildcards:
• ? matches one arbitrary character except /. For example, ?.cc matches a.cc;
• * matches any number of arbitrary characters except /. For example, *.cc matches a.cc and foo.cc;
• ** matches any number of arbitrary characters including /. For example, **.cc matches a.cc, foo.cc and
b/y.cc.
The following behaviors are default, although they can be altered by modifiers:
• When the entire wildcard pattern has no match, an error is thrown.
• None of the wildcards matches . at the beginning of filenames. For example:
• ?x.conf does not match .x.conf;
• d/*.conf does not match d/.x.conf;
• **.conf does not match d/.x.conf.
Modifiers
Wildcards can be modified using the same syntax as indexing. For instance, in *[match-hidden] the *
wildcard is modified with the match-hidden modifier. Multiple matchers can be chained like
*[set:abc][range:0-9]. There are two kinds of modifiers:
Global modifiers apply to the whole pattern and can be placed after any wildcard:
• nomatch-ok tells Elvish not to throw an error when there is no match for the pattern. For instance, in
the example directory put bad* will be an error, but put bad*[nomatch-ok] does exactly nothing.
• but:xxx (where xxx is any filename) excludes the filename from the final result.
Although global modifiers affect the entire wildcard pattern, you can add it after any wildcard, and the
effect is the same. For example, put */*[nomatch-ok].cpp and put *[nomatch-ok]/*.cpp do the same thing.
On the other hand, you must add it after a wildcard, instead of after the entire pattern: put
*/*.cpp[nomatch-ok] unfortunately does not do the correct thing. (This will probably be fixed.)
Local modifiers only apply to the wildcard it immediately follows:
• match-hidden tells the wildcard to match . at the beginning of filenames, e.g. *[match-hidden].conf
matches .x.conf and ax.conf.
Being a local modifier, it only applies to the wildcard it immediately follows. For instance,
*[match-hidden]/*.conf matches d/ax.conf and .d2/ax.conf, but not d/.x.conf or .d2/.x.conf.
• Character matchers restrict the characters to match:
• Character sets, like set:aeoiu;
• Character ranges like range:a-z (including z) or range:a~z (excluding z);
• Character classes: control, digit, graphic, letter, lower, mark, number, print, punct, space, symbol,
title, and upper. See the Is* functions here (https://godoc.org/unicode) for their definitions.
Note the following caveats:
• Multiple matchers, they are OR'ed. For instance, ?[set:aeoiu][digit] matches aeoiu and digits.
• Dots at the beginning of filenames always require an explicit match-hidden, even if the matcher
includes .. For example, ?[set:.a]x.conf does not match .x.conf; you have to ?[set:.a
match-hidden]x.conf.
• Likewise, you always need to use ** to match slashes, even if the matcher includes /. For example
*[set:abc/] is the same as *[set:abc].
Compound Expression and Braced Lists
Writing several expressions together with no space in between will concatenate them. This creates a
compound expression, because it mimics the formation of compound words in natural languages. Examples:
~> put 'a'b"c" # compounding three string literals
▶ abc
~> v = value
~> put '$v is '$v # compounding one string literal with one string variable
▶ '$v is value'
Many constructs in Elvish can generate multiple values, like indexing with multiple indices and output
captures. Compounding multiple values with other values generates all possible combinations:
~> put (put a b)-(put 1 2)
▶ a-1
▶ a-2
▶ b-1
▶ b-2
Note the order of the generated values. The value that comes later changes faster.
NOTE: There is a perhaps a better way to explain the ordering, but you can think of the previous code as
equivalent to this:
for x [a b] {
for y [1 2] {
put $x-$y
}
}
Braced Lists
In practice, you never have to write (put a b): you can use a braced list {a,b}:
~> put {a,b}-{1,2}
▶ a-1
▶ a-2
▶ b-1
▶ b-2
Elements in braced lists can also be separated with whitespaces, or a combination of comma and
whitespaces (the latter not recommended):
~> put {a b , c,d}
▶ a
▶ b
▶ c
▶ d
(In future, the syntax might be made more strict.)
Braced list is merely a syntax for grouping multiple values. It is not a data structure.
Expression Structure and Precedence
Braced lists are evaluated before being compounded with other values. You can use this to affect the
order of evaluation. For instance, put *.txt gives you all filenames that end with .txt in the current
directory; while put {*}.txt gives you all filenames in the current directory, appended with .txt.
TODO: document evaluation order regarding tilde and wildcards.
Ordinary Command
The command is probably the most important syntax construct in shell languages, and Elvish is no
exception. The word command itself, is overloaded with meanings. In the terminology of this document,
the term command include the following:
• An ordinary assignment, introduced above;
• An ordinary command, introduced in this section;
• A special command, introduced in the next section.
An ordinary command consists of a compulsory head, and any number of arguments, options and redirections.
Head
The head must appear first. It is an arbitrary word that determines what will be run. Examples:
~> ls -l # the string ls is the head
(output omitted)
~> (put [@a]{ ls $@a }) -l
(same output)
The head must evaluate to one value. For instance, the following does not work:
~> (put [@a]{ ls $@a } -l)
Exception: head of command must be a single value; got 2 values
[tty], line 1: (put [@a]{ ls $@a } -l)
The definition of barewords is relaxed for the head to include <, >, * and ^. These are all names of
numeric builtins:
~> < 3 5 # less-than
▶ $true
~> > 3 5 # greater-than
▶ $false
~> * 3 5 # multiplication
▶ 15
~> ^ 3 5 # power
▶ 243
Arguments and Options
Arguments (args for short) and options (opts for short) can be supplied to commands. Arguments are
arbitrary words, while options have the same syntax as map pairs. They are separated by inline
whitespaces:
~> echo &sep=, a b c # seq=, is an option; a b c are arguments
a,b,c
Redirections
Redirections are used for modifying file descriptors (FD).
The most common form of redirections opens a file and associates it with an FD. The form consists of an
optional destination FD (like 2), a redirection operator (like >) and a filename (like error.log):
• The destination fd determines which FD to modify. It can be given either as a number, or one of stdin,
stdout and stderr. There must be no space between the FD and the redirection operator; otherwise
Elvish will parse it as an argument.
The destination FD can be omitted, in which case it is inferred from the redirection operator.
• The redirection operator determines the mode to open the file, and the destination FD if it is not
explicitly specified.
• The filename names the file to open.
Possible redirection operators and their default FDs are:
• < for reading. The default FD is 0 (stdin).
• > for writing. The default FD is 1 (stdout).
• >> for appending. The default FD is 1 (stdout).
• <> for reading and writing. The default FD is 1 (stdout).
Examples:
~> echo haha > log
~> cat log
haha
~> cat < log
haha
~> ls --bad-arg 2> error
Exception: ls exited with 2
Traceback:
[interactive], line 1:
ls --bad-arg 2> error
~> cat error
/bin/ls: unrecognized option '--bad-arg'
Try '/bin/ls --help' for more information.
Redirections can also be used for closing or duplicating FDs. Instead of writing a filename, use &fd
(where fd is a number, or any of stdin, stdout and stderr) for duplicating, or &- for closing. In this
case, the redirection operator only determines the default destination FD (and is totally irrevelant if a
destination FD is specified). Examples:
~> ls >&- # close stdout
/bin/ls: write error: Bad file descriptor
Exception: ls exited with 2
Traceback:
[interactive], line 1:
ls >&-
If you have multiple related redirections, they are applied in the order they appear. For instance:
~> fn f { echo out; echo err >&2 } # echoes "out" on stdout, "err" on stderr
~> f >log 2>&1 # use file "log" for stdout, then use (changed) stdout for stderr
~> cat log
out
err
Ordering
Elvish does not impose any ordering of arguments, options and redirections: they can intermix each other.
The only requirement is that the head must come first. This is different from POSIX shells, where
redirections may appear before the head. For instance, the following two both work in POSIX shell, but
only the former works in Elvish:
echo something > file
> file echo something # mistaken for the comparison builtin ">" in Elvish
Special Commands
Special commands obey the same syntax rules as normal commands (i.e. syntactically special commands can
be treated the same as ordinary commands), but have evaluation rules that are custom to each command. To
explain this, we use the following example:
~> or ?(echo x) ?(echo y) ?(echo z)
x
▶ $ok
In the example, the or command first evaluates its first argument, which has the value $ok (a truish
value) and the side effect of outputting x. Due to the custom evaluation rule of or, the rest of the
arguments are not evaluated.
If or were a normal command, the code above is still syntactically correct. However, Elvish would then
evaluate all its arguments, with the side effect of outputting x, y and z, before calling or.
Deleting variable or element: del
The del special command can be used to either delete variables or elements of lists and maps. Operands
should be specified without a leading dollar sign, like the left-hand side of assignments.
Example of deleting variable:
~> x = 2
~> echo $x
2
~> del x
~> echo $x
Compilation error: variable $x not found
[tty], line 1: echo $x
Example of deleting element:
~> m = [&k=v &k2=v2]
~> del m[k2]
~> put $m
▶ [&k=v]
~> l = [[&k=v &k2=v2]]
~> del l[0][k2]
~> put $l
▶ [[&k=v]]
Logics: and and or
The and special command evaluates its arguments from left to right; as soon as a booleanly false value is
obtained, it outputs the value and stops. When given no arguments, it outputs $true.
The or special command is the same except that it stops when a booleanly true value is obtained. When
given no arguments, it outpus $false.
Condition: if
TODO: Document the syntax notation, and add more examples.
Syntax:
if <condition> {
<body>
} elif <condition> {
<body>
} else {
<else-body>
}
The if special command goes through the conditions one by one: as soon as one evaluates to a booleanly
true value, its corresponding body is executed. If none of conditions are booleanly true and an else
body is supplied, it is executed.
The condition part is an expression, not a command like in other shells. Example:
fn tell-language [fname]{
if (has-suffix $fname .go) {
echo $fname" is a Go file!"
} elif (has-suffix $fname .c) {
echo $fname" is a C file!"
} else {
echo $fname" is a mysterious file!"
}
}
The condition part must be syntactically a single expression, but it can evaluate to multiple values, in
which case they are and'ed:
if (put $true $false) {
echo "will not be executed"
}
If the expression evaluates to 0 values, it is considered true, consistent with how and works.
Tip: a combination of if and ?() gives you a semantics close to other shells:
if ?(test -d .git) {
# do something
}
However, for Elvish's builtin predicates that output values instead of throw exceptions, the output
capture construct () should be used.
Conditional Loop: while
Syntax:
while <condition> {
<body>
} else {
<else-body>
}
Execute the body as long as the condition evaluates to a booleanly true value.
The else body, if present, is executed if the body has never been executed (i.e. the condition evaluates
to a booleanly false value in the very beginning).
Iterative Loop: for
Syntax:
for <var> <container> {
<body>
} else {
<body>
}
Iterate the container (e.g. a list). In each iteration, assign the variable to an element of the
container and execute the body.
The else body, if present, is executed if the body has never been executed (i.e. the iteration value has
no elements).
Exception Control: try
(If you just want to capture the exception, you can use the more concise exception capture construct ?()
instead.)
Syntax:
try {
<try-block>
} except except-varname {
<except-block>
} else {
<else-block>
} finally {
<finally-block>
}
Only try and try-block are required. This control structure behaves as follows:
1. The try-block is always executed first.
2. If except is present and an exception occurs in try-block, it is caught and stored in except-varname,
and except-block is then executed. Example:
~> try { fail bad } except e { put $e }
▶ ?(fail bad)
Note that if except is not present, exceptions thrown from try are not caught: for instance, try {
fail bad } throws bad; it is equivalent to a plain fail bad.
Note that the word after except names a variable, not a matching condition. Exception matching is
not supported yet. For instance, you may want to only match exceptions that were created with fail
bad with except bad, but in fact this creates a variable $bad that contains whatever exception was
thrown.
3. If no exception occurs and else is present, else-block is executed. Example:
~> try { nop } else { echo well }
well
4. If finally-block is present, it is executed. Examples:
~> try { fail bad } finally { echo final }
final
Exception: bad
Traceback:
[tty], line 1:
try { fail bad } finally { echo final }
~> try { echo good } finally { echo final }
good
final
5. If the exception was not caught (i.e. except is not present), it is rethrown.
Exceptions thrown in blocks other than try-block are not caught. If an exception was thrown and either
except-block or finally-block throws another exception, the original exception is lost. Examples:
~> try { fail bad } except e { fail worse }
Exception: worse
Traceback:
[tty], line 1:
try { fail bad } except e { fail worse }
~> try { fail bad } except e { fail worse } finally { fail worst }
Exception: worst
Traceback:
[tty], line 1:
try { fail bad } except e { fail worse } finally { fail worst }
Function Definition: fn
Syntax:
fn <name> <lambda>
Define a function with a given name. The function behaves in the same way to the lambda used to define
it, except that it "captures" return. In other words, return will fall through lambdas not defined with
fn, and continues until it exits a function defined with fn:
~> fn f {
{ echo a; return }
echo b # will not execute
}
~> f
a
~> {
f
echo c # executed, because f "captures" the return
}
a
c
TODO: Find a better way to describe this. Hopefully the example is illustrative enough, though.
Under the hood, fn defines a variable with the given name plus ~ (see command resolution).
Command Resolution
When using a literal string as the head of a command, it is first resolved during the compilation phase,
using the following order:
1. If the name matches any of the special commands, it is treated as so.
2. Finding a variable with the name of the command plus a ~ suffix.
For instance, given a command f a b, Elvish looks for the variable $f~, using the ordinary variable
scoping rule, except that resolution failures do not cause errors but fall back to the next step.
Functions defined with fn as well as builtin functions are actually variables with a ~ suffix in
their names.
3. External commands.
This step always succeeds during compilation, even if the command does not exist. Later, during
evaluation, a searching step determines whether the external command exists.
The entire resolution procedure can be emulated with the resolve (builtin.html#resolve) command.
Searching of external commands can be emulated with the search-external (builtin.html#search-builtin)
command.
Pipeline
A pipeline is formed by joining one or more commands together with the pipe sign (|).
IO Semantics
For each pair of adjacent commands a | b, the output of a is connected to the input of b. Both the byte
pipe and the value channel are connected, even if one of them is not used.
Command redirections are applied before the connection happens. For instance, the following writes foo
to a.txt instead of the output:
~> echo foo > a.txt | cat
~> cat a.txt
foo
Execution Flow
All of the commands in a pipeline are executed in parallel, and the execution of the pipeline finishes
when all of its commands finish execution.
If one or more command in a pipeline throws an exception, the other commands will continue to execute as
normal. After all commands finish execution, an exception is thrown, the value of which depends on the
number of commands that have thrown an exception:
• If only one command has thrown an exception, that exception is rethrown.
• If more than one commands have thrown exceptions, a "composite exception", containing information all
exceptions involved, is thrown.
Background Pipeline
Adding an ampersand & to the end of a pipeline will cause it to be executed in the background. In this
case, the rest of the code chunk will continue to execute without waiting for the pipeline to finish.
Exceptions thrown from the background pipeline do not affect the code chunk that contains it.
When a background pipeline finishes, a message is printed to the terminal if the shell is interactive.
Code Chunk
A code chunk is formed by joining zero or more pipelines together, separating them with either newlines
or semicolons.
Pipelines in a code chunk are executed in sequence. If any pipeline throws an exception, the execution
of the whole code chunk stops, propagating that exception.
Exception and Flow Commands
Exceptions have similar semantics to those in Python or Java. They can be thrown with the fail
(builtin.html#fail) command and caught with either exception capture ?() or the try special command.
If an external command exits with a non-zero status, Elvish treats that as an exception.
Flow commands -- break, continue and return -- are ordinary builtin commands that raise special "flow
control" exceptions. The for and while commands capture break and continue, while fn modifies its
closure to capture return.
One interesting implication is that since flow commands are just ordinary commands you can build
functions on top of them. For instance, this function breaks randomly:
fn random-break {
if eq (randint 2) 0 {
break
}
}
The function random-break can then be used in for-loops and while-loops.
Note that the return flow control exception is only captured by functions defined with fn. It falls
through ordinary lambdas:
fn f {
{
# returns f, falling through the innermost lambda
return
}
}
Namespaces and Modules
Namespace in Elvish helps prevent name collisions and is important for building modules.
Syntax
Prepend namespace: to command names and variable names to specify the namespace. The following code
e:echo $E:PATH
uses the echo command from the e: namespace and the PATH variable from the E: namespace. The colon is
considered part of the namespace name.
Namespaces may be nested; for example, calling edit:location:start first finds the edit: namespace, and
then the location: namespace inside it, and then call the start function within the nested namespace.
Special Namespaces
The following namespaces have special meanings to the language:
• local: and up: refer to lexical scopes, and have been documented above.
• e: refers to externals. For instance, e:ls refers to the external command ls.
Most of the time you can rely on the rules of command resolution and do not need to use this
explicitly, unless a function defined by you (or an Elvish builtin) shadows an external command.
• E: refers to environment variables. For instance, $E:USER is the environment variable USER.
This is always needed, because unlike command resolution, variable resolution does not fall back onto
environment variables.
• builtin: refers to builtin functions and variables.
You don't need to use this explicitly unless you have defined names that shadows builtin counterparts.
Pre-Defined Modules
Namespaces that are not special (i,e. one of the above) are also called modules. Aside from these
special namespaces, Elvish also comes with the following modules:
• edit: for accessing the Elvish editor. This module is available in interactive mode and does not need
importing.
See reference (edit.html).
• re: for regular expression facilities. This module is always available. See reference (re.html).
• daemon: for manipulating the daemon. This module is always available.
This is not yet documented.
User-Defined Modules
You can define your own modules with Elvishscript by putting them under ~/.elvish/lib and giving them a
.elv extension. For instance, to define a module named a, store it in ~/.elvish/lib/a.elv:
~> cat ~/.elvish/lib/a.elv
echo "mod a loading"
fn f {
echo "f from mod a"
}
To import the module, use use:
~> use a
mod a loading
~> a:f
f from mod a
Modules in nested directories can also be imported. For example, if you have defined a module in
~/.elvish/lib/x/y/z.elv, you can import it by using use x/y/z, and the resulting namespace will be z::
~> cat .elvish/lib/x/y/z.elv
fn f {
echo "f from x/y/z"
}
~> use x/y/z
~> z:f
f from x/y/z
In general, if you import a module from a nested directory, the resulting namespace will be the same as
the file name (without the .elv extension).
Aliasing
You can import a module as a namespace of your choice by specifying a second argument to use. For
example, to import x/y/z as a xyz namespace, you can use use x/y/z xyz:
~> use x/y/z xyz
~> xyz:f
f from x/y/z
This is especially useful when you need to import several modules that are in different directories but
have the same file name.
Scoping of Imports
Namespace imports are lexically scoped. For instance, if you use a module within an inner scope, it is
not available outside that scope:
{
use some-mod
some-mod:some-func
}
some-mod:some-func # not valid
The imported modules themselves are also evaluated in a separate scope. That means that functions and
variables defined in the module does not pollute the default namespace, and vice versa. For instance, if
you define ls as a wrapper function in rc.elv:
fn ls [@a]{
e:ls --color=auto $@a
}
That definition is not visible in module files: ls will still refer to the external command ls, unless
you shadow it in the very same module.
Re-Importing
Modules are cached after one import. Subsequent imports do not re-execute the module; they only serve
the bring it into the current scope. Moreover, the cache is keyed by the path of the module, not the
name under which it is imported. For instance, if you have the following in ~/.elvish/lib/a/b.elv:
echo importing
The following code only prints one importing:
{ use a/b }
use a/b # only brings mod into the lexical scope
As does the following:
use a/b
use a/b