Ubuntu Manpage: btrfs-man5 - topics about the BTRFS filesystem (mount options, supported file attributes

NAME

       btrfs-man5 - topics about the BTRFS filesystem (mount options, supported file attributes
       and other)

DESCRIPTION

       This document describes topics related to BTRFS that are not specific to the tools.
       Currently covers:

        1.  mount options

        2.  filesystem features

        3.  checksum algorithms

        4.  compression

        5.  filesystem exclusive operations

        6.  filesystem limits

        7.  bootloader support

        8.  file attributes

        9.  zoned mode

       10.  control device

       11.  filesystems with multiple block group profiles

       12.  seeding device

       13.  raid56 status and recommended practices

       14.  storage model

       15.  hardware considerations

MOUNT OPTIONS

This section describes mount options specific to BTRFS. For the generic mount options
please refer to mount(8) manpage. The options are sorted alphabetically (discarding the no
prefix).

Note
most mount options apply to the whole filesystem and only options in the first mounted
subvolume will take effect. This is due to lack of implementation and may change in
the future. This means that (for example) you can’t set per-subvolume nodatacow,
nodatasum, or compress using mount options. This should eventually be fixed, but it
has proved to be difficult to implement correctly within the Linux VFS framework.

Mount options are processed in order, only the last occurrence of an option takes effect
and may disable other options due to constraints (see eg. nodatacow and compress). The
output of mount command shows which options have been applied.

acl, noacl

(default: on)

Enable/disable support for Posix Access Control Lists (ACLs). See the acl(5) manual
page for more information about ACLs.

The support for ACL is build-time configurable (BTRFS_FS_POSIX_ACL) and mount fails if
acl is requested but the feature is not compiled in.

autodefrag, noautodefrag

(since: 3.0, default: off)

Enable automatic file defragmentation. When enabled, small random writes into files
(in a range of tens of kilobytes, currently it’s 64K) are detected and queued up for
the defragmentation process. Not well suited for large database workloads.

The read latency may increase due to reading the adjacent blocks that make up the
range for defragmentation, successive write will merge the blocks in the new location.

Warning
Defragmenting with Linux kernel versions < 3.9 or ≥ 3.14-rc2 as well as with Linux
stable kernel versions ≥ 3.10.31, ≥ 3.12.12 or ≥ 3.13.4 will break up the reflinks
of COW data (for example files copied with cp --reflink, snapshots or
de-duplicated data). This may cause considerable increase of space usage depending
on the broken up reflinks.

barrier, nobarrier

(default: on)

Ensure that all IO write operations make it through the device cache and are stored
permanently when the filesystem is at its consistency checkpoint. This typically means
that a flush command is sent to the device that will synchronize all pending data and
ordinary metadata blocks, then writes the superblock and issues another flush.

The write flushes incur a slight hit and also prevent the IO block scheduler to
reorder requests in a more effective way. Disabling barriers gets rid of that penalty
but will most certainly lead to a corrupted filesystem in case of a crash or power
loss. The ordinary metadata blocks could be yet unwritten at the time the new
superblock is stored permanently, expecting that the block pointers to metadata were
stored permanently before.

On a device with a volatile battery-backed write-back cache, the nobarrier option will
not lead to filesystem corruption as the pending blocks are supposed to make it to the
permanent storage.

check_int, check_int_data, check_int_print_mask=value

(since: 3.0, default: off)

These debugging options control the behavior of the integrity checking module (the
BTRFS_FS_CHECK_INTEGRITY config option required). The main goal is to verify that all
blocks from a given transaction period are properly linked.

check_int enables the integrity checker module, which examines all block write
requests to ensure on-disk consistency, at a large memory and CPU cost.

check_int_data includes extent data in the integrity checks, and implies the check_int
option.

check_int_print_mask takes a bitmask of BTRFSIC_PRINT_MASK_* values as defined in
fs/btrfs/check-integrity.c, to control the integrity checker module behavior.

See comments at the top of fs/btrfs/check-integrity.c for more information.

clear_cache

Force clearing and rebuilding of the disk space cache if something has gone wrong. See
also: space_cache.

commit=seconds

(since: 3.12, default: 30)

Set the interval of periodic transaction commit when data are synchronized to
permanent storage. Higher interval values lead to larger amount of unwritten data,
which has obvious consequences when the system crashes. The upper bound is not forced,
but a warning is printed if it’s more than 300 seconds (5 minutes). Use with care.

compress, compress=type[:level], compress-force, compress-force=type[:level]

(default: off, level support since: 5.1)

Control BTRFS file data compression. Type may be specified as zlib, lzo, zstd or no
(for no compression, used for remounting). If no type is specified, zlib is used. If
compress-force is specified, then compression will always be attempted, but the data
may end up uncompressed if the compression would make them larger.

Both zlib and zstd (since version 5.1) expose the compression level as a tunable knob
with higher levels trading speed and memory (zstd) for higher compression ratios. This
can be set by appending a colon and the desired level. Zlib accepts the range [1, 9]
and zstd accepts [1, 15]. If no level is set, both currently use a default level of 3.
The value 0 is an alias for the default level.

Otherwise some simple heuristics are applied to detect an incompressible file. If the
first blocks written to a file are not compressible, the whole file is permanently
marked to skip compression. As this is too simple, the compress-force is a workaround
that will compress most of the files at the cost of some wasted CPU cycles on failed
attempts. Since kernel 4.15, a set of heuristic algorithms have been improved by using
frequency sampling, repeated pattern detection and Shannon entropy calculation to
avoid that.

Note
If compression is enabled, nodatacow and nodatasum are disabled.

datacow, nodatacow

(default: on)

Enable data copy-on-write for newly created files. Nodatacow implies nodatasum, and
disables compression. All files created under nodatacow are also set the NOCOW file
attribute (see chattr(1)).

Note
If nodatacow or nodatasum are enabled, compression is disabled.
Updates in-place improve performance for workloads that do frequent overwrites, at the
cost of potential partial writes, in case the write is interrupted (system crash,
device failure).

datasum, nodatasum

(default: on)

Enable data checksumming for newly created files. Datasum implies datacow, ie. the
normal mode of operation. All files created under nodatasum inherit the "no checksums"
property, however there’s no corresponding file attribute (see chattr(1)).

Note
If nodatacow or nodatasum are enabled, compression is disabled.
There is a slight performance gain when checksums are turned off, the corresponding
metadata blocks holding the checksums do not need to updated. The cost of checksumming
of the blocks in memory is much lower than the IO, modern CPUs feature hardware
support of the checksumming algorithm.

degraded

(default: off)

Allow mounts with less devices than the RAID profile constraints require. A read-write
mount (or remount) may fail when there are too many devices missing, for example if a
stripe member is completely missing from RAID0.

Since 4.14, the constraint checks have been improved and are verified on the chunk
level, not at the device level. This allows degraded mounts of filesystems with mixed
RAID profiles for data and metadata, even if the device number constraints would not
be satisfied for some of the profiles.

Example: metadata — raid1, data — single, devices — /dev/sda, /dev/sdb

Suppose the data are completely stored on sda, then missing sdb will not prevent the
mount, even if 1 missing device would normally prevent (any) single profile to mount.
In case some of the data chunks are stored on sdb, then the constraint of single/data
is not satisfied and the filesystem cannot be mounted.

device=devicepath

Specify a path to a device that will be scanned for BTRFS filesystem during mount.
This is usually done automatically by a device manager (like udev) or using the btrfs
device scan command (eg. run from the initial ramdisk). In cases where this is not
possible the device mount option can help.

Note
booting eg. a RAID1 system may fail even if all filesystem’s device paths are
provided as the actual device nodes may not be discovered by the system at that
point.

discard, discard=sync, discard=async, nodiscard

(default: off, async support since: 5.6)

Enable discarding of freed file blocks. This is useful for SSD devices, thinly
provisioned LUNs, or virtual machine images; however, every storage layer must support
discard for it to work.

In the synchronous mode (sync or without option value), lack of asynchronous queued
TRIM on the backing device TRIM can severely degrade performance, because a
synchronous TRIM operation will be attempted instead. Queued TRIM requires newer than
SATA revision 3.1 chipsets and devices.

The asynchronous mode (async) gathers extents in larger chunks before sending them to
the devices for TRIM. The overhead and performance impact should be negligible
compared to the previous mode and it’s supposed to be the preferred mode if needed.

If it is not necessary to immediately discard freed blocks, then the fstrim tool can
be used to discard all free blocks in a batch. Scheduling a TRIM during a period of
low system activity will prevent latent interference with the performance of other
operations. Also, a device may ignore the TRIM command if the range is too small, so
running a batch discard has a greater probability of actually discarding the blocks.

enospc_debug, noenospc_debug

(default: off)

Enable verbose output for some ENOSPC conditions. It’s safe to use but can be noisy if
the system reaches near-full state.

fatal_errors=action

(since: 3.4, default: bug)

Action to take when encountering a fatal error.

bug

BUG() on a fatal error, the system will stay in the crashed state and may be still
partially usable, but reboot is required for full operation

panic

panic() on a fatal error, depending on other system configuration, this may be
followed by a reboot. Please refer to the documentation of kernel boot parameters,
eg. panic, oops or crashkernel.

flushoncommit, noflushoncommit

(default: off)

This option forces any data dirtied by a write in a prior transaction to commit as
part of the current commit, effectively a full filesystem sync.

This makes the committed state a fully consistent view of the file system from the
application’s perspective (i.e. it includes all completed file system operations).
This was previously the behavior only when a snapshot was created.

When off, the filesystem is consistent but buffered writes may last more than one
transaction commit.

fragment=type

(depends on compile-time option BTRFS_DEBUG, since: 4.4, default: off)

A debugging helper to intentionally fragment given type of block groups. The type can
be data, metadata or all. This mount option should not be used outside of debugging
environments and is not recognized if the kernel config option BTRFS_DEBUG is not
enabled.

nologreplay

(default: off, even read-only)

The tree-log contains pending updates to the filesystem until the full commit. The log
is replayed on next mount, this can be disabled by this option. See also treelog. Note
that nologreplay is the same as norecovery.

Warning
currently, the tree log is replayed even with a read-only mount! To disable that
behaviour, mount also with nologreplay.

max_inline=bytes

(default: min(2048, page size) )

Specify the maximum amount of space, that can be inlined in a metadata B-tree leaf.
The value is specified in bytes, optionally with a K suffix (case insensitive). In
practice, this value is limited by the filesystem block size (named sectorsize at mkfs
time), and memory page size of the system. In case of sectorsize limit, there’s some
space unavailable due to leaf headers. For example, a 4k sectorsize, maximum size of
inline data is about 3900 bytes.

Inlining can be completely turned off by specifying 0. This will increase data block
slack if file sizes are much smaller than block size but will reduce metadata
consumption in return.

Note
the default value has changed to 2048 in kernel 4.6.

metadata_ratio=value

(default: 0, internal logic)

Specifies that 1 metadata chunk should be allocated after every value data chunks.
Default behaviour depends on internal logic, some percent of unused metadata space is
attempted to be maintained but is not always possible if there’s not enough space left
for chunk allocation. The option could be useful to override the internal logic in
favor of the metadata allocation if the expected workload is supposed to be metadata
intense (snapshots, reflinks, xattrs, inlined files).

norecovery

(since: 4.5, default: off)

Do not attempt any data recovery at mount time. This will disable logreplay and avoids
other write operations. Note that this option is the same as nologreplay.

Note
The opposite option recovery used to have different meaning but was changed for
consistency with other filesystems, where norecovery is used for skipping log
replay. BTRFS does the same and in general will try to avoid any write operations.

rescan_uuid_tree

(since: 3.12, default: off)

Force check and rebuild procedure of the UUID tree. This should not normally be
needed.

rescue

(since: 5.9)

Modes allowing mount with damaged filesystem structures.

• usebackuproot (since: 5.9, replaces standalone option usebackuproot)

• nologreplay (since: 5.9, replaces standalone option nologreplay)

• ignorebadroots, ibadroots (since: 5.11)

• ignoredatacsums, idatacsums (since: 5.11)

• all (since: 5.9)

skip_balance

(since: 3.3, default: off)

Skip automatic resume of an interrupted balance operation. The operation can later be
resumed with btrfs balance resume, or the paused state can be removed with btrfs
balance cancel. The default behaviour is to resume an interrupted balance immediately
after a volume is mounted.

space_cache, space_cache=version, nospace_cache

(nospace_cache since: 3.2, space_cache=v1 and space_cache=v2 since 4.5, default:
space_cache=v1)

Options to control the free space cache. The free space cache greatly improves
performance when reading block group free space into memory. However, managing the
space cache consumes some resources, including a small amount of disk space.

There are two implementations of the free space cache. The original one, referred to
as v1, is the safe default. The v1 space cache can be disabled at mount time with
nospace_cache without clearing.

On very large filesystems (many terabytes) and certain workloads, the performance of
the v1 space cache may degrade drastically. The v2 implementation, which adds a new
B-tree called the free space tree, addresses this issue. Once enabled, the v2 space
cache will always be used and cannot be disabled unless it is cleared. Use
clear_cache,space_cache=v1 or clear_cache,nospace_cache to do so. If v2 is enabled,
kernels without v2 support will only be able to mount the filesystem in read-only
mode.

The btrfs-check(8) and mkfs.btrfs(8) commands have full v2 free space cache support
since v4.19.

If a version is not explicitly specified, the default implementation will be chosen,
which is v1.

ssd, ssd_spread, nossd, nossd_spread

(default: SSD autodetected)

Options to control SSD allocation schemes. By default, BTRFS will enable or disable
SSD optimizations depending on status of a device with respect to rotational or
non-rotational type. This is determined by the contents of
/sys/block/DEV/queue/rotational). If it is 0, the ssd option is turned on. The option
nossd will disable the autodetection.

The optimizations make use of the absence of the seek penalty that’s inherent for the
rotational devices. The blocks can be typically written faster and are not offloaded
to separate threads.

Note
Since 4.14, the block layout optimizations have been dropped. This used to help
with first generations of SSD devices. Their FTL (flash translation layer) was not
effective and the optimization was supposed to improve the wear by better aligning
blocks. This is no longer true with modern SSD devices and the optimization had no
real benefit. Furthermore it caused increased fragmentation. The layout tuning has
been kept intact for the option ssd_spread.
The ssd_spread mount option attempts to allocate into bigger and aligned chunks of
unused space, and may perform better on low-end SSDs. ssd_spread implies ssd,
enabling all other SSD heuristics as well. The option nossd will disable all SSD
options while nossd_spread only disables ssd_spread.

subvol=path

Mount subvolume from path rather than the toplevel subvolume. The path is always
treated as relative to the toplevel subvolume. This mount option overrides the default
subvolume set for the given filesystem.

subvolid=subvolid

Mount subvolume specified by a subvolid number rather than the toplevel subvolume. You
can use btrfs subvolume list of btrfs subvolume show to see subvolume ID numbers. This
mount option overrides the default subvolume set for the given filesystem.

Note
if both subvolid and subvol are specified, they must point at the same subvolume,
otherwise the mount will fail.

thread_pool=number

(default: min(NRCPUS + 2, 8) )

The number of worker threads to start. NRCPUS is number of on-line CPUs detected at
the time of mount. Small number leads to less parallelism in processing data and
metadata, higher numbers could lead to a performance hit due to increased locking
contention, process scheduling, cache-line bouncing or costly data transfers between
local CPU memories.

treelog, notreelog

(default: on)

Enable the tree logging used for fsync and O_SYNC writes. The tree log stores changes
without the need of a full filesystem sync. The log operations are flushed at sync and
transaction commit. If the system crashes between two such syncs, the pending tree log
operations are replayed during mount.

Warning
currently, the tree log is replayed even with a read-only mount! To disable that
behaviour, also mount with nologreplay.
The tree log could contain new files/directories, these would not exist on a mounted
filesystem if the log is not replayed.

usebackuproot

(since: 4.6, default: off)

Enable autorecovery attempts if a bad tree root is found at mount time. Currently this
scans a backup list of several previous tree roots and tries to use the first
readable. This can be used with read-only mounts as well.

Note
This option has replaced recovery.

user_subvol_rm_allowed

(default: off)

Allow subvolumes to be deleted by their respective owner. Otherwise, only the root
user can do that.

Note
historically, any user could create a snapshot even if he was not owner of the
source subvolume, the subvolume deletion has been restricted for that reason. The
subvolume creation has been restricted but this mount option is still required.
This is a usability issue. Since 4.18, the rmdir(2) syscall can delete an empty
subvolume just like an ordinary directory. Whether this is possible can be
detected at runtime, see rmdir_subvol feature in FILESYSTEM FEATURES.

DEPRECATED MOUNT OPTIONS
List of mount options that have been removed, kept for backward compatibility.

recovery

(since: 3.2, default: off, deprecated since: 4.5)

Note
this option has been replaced by usebackuproot and should not be used but will
work on 4.5+ kernels.

inode_cache, noinode_cache

(removed in: 5.11, since: 3.0, default: off)

Note
the functionality has been removed in 5.11, any stale data created by previous use
of the inode_cache option can be removed by btrfs check --clear-ino-cache.

NOTES ON GENERIC MOUNT OPTIONS
Some of the general mount options from mount(8) that affect BTRFS and are worth
mentioning.

noatime

under read intensive work-loads, specifying noatime significantly improves performance
because no new access time information needs to be written. Without this option, the
default is relatime, which only reduces the number of inode atime updates in
comparison to the traditional strictatime. The worst case for atime updates under
relatime occurs when many files are read whose atime is older than 24 h and which are
freshly snapshotted. In that case the atime is updated and COW happens - for each file
- in bulk. See also https://lwn.net/Articles/499293/ - Atime and btrfs: a bad
combination? (LWN, 2012-05-31).

Note that noatime may break applications that rely on atime uptimes like the venerable
Mutt (unless you use maildir mailboxes).

FILESYSTEM FEATURES

       The basic set of filesystem features gets extended over time. The backward compatibility
       is maintained and the features are optional, need to be explicitly asked for so accidental
       use will not create incompatibilities.

       There are several classes and the respective tools to manage the features:

       at mkfs time only

           This is namely for core structures, like the b-tree nodesize or checksum algorithm,
           see mkfs.btrfs(8) for more details.

       after mkfs, on an unmounted filesystem

           Features that may optimize internal structures or add new structures to support new
           functionality, see btrfstune(8). The command btrfs inspect-internal dump-super device
           will dump a superblock, you can map the value of incompat_flags to the features listed
           below

       after mkfs, on a mounted filesystem

           The features of a filesystem (with a given UUID) are listed in
           /sys/fs/btrfs/UUID/features/, one file per feature. The status is stored inside the
           file. The value 1 is for enabled and active, while 0 means the feature was enabled at
           mount time but turned off afterwards.

           Whether a particular feature can be turned on a mounted filesystem can be found in the
           directory /sys/fs/btrfs/features/, one file per feature. The value 1 means the feature
           can be enabled.

       List of features (see also mkfs.btrfs(8) section FILESYSTEM FEATURES):

       big_metadata

           (since: 3.4)

           the filesystem uses nodesize for metadata blocks, this can be bigger than the page
           size

       compress_lzo

           (since: 2.6.38)

           the lzo compression has been used on the filesystem, either as a mount option or via
           btrfs filesystem defrag.

       compress_zstd

           (since: 4.14)

           the zstd compression has been used on the filesystem, either as a mount option or via
           btrfs filesystem defrag.

       default_subvol

           (since: 2.6.34)

           the default subvolume has been set on the filesystem

       extended_iref

           (since: 3.7)

           increased hardlink limit per file in a directory to 65536, older kernels supported a
           varying number of hardlinks depending on the sum of all file name sizes that can be
           stored into one metadata block

       free_space_tree

           (since: 4.5)

           free space representation using a dedicated b-tree, successor of v1 space cache

       metadata_uuid

           (since: 5.0)

           the main filesystem UUID is the metadata_uuid, which stores the new UUID only in the
           superblock while all metadata blocks still have the UUID set at mkfs time, see
           btrfstune(8) for more

       mixed_backref

           (since: 2.6.31)

           the last major disk format change, improved backreferences, now default

       mixed_groups

           (since: 2.6.37)

           mixed data and metadata block groups, ie. the data and metadata are not separated and
           occupy the same block groups, this mode is suitable for small volumes as there are no
           constraints how the remaining space should be used (compared to the split mode, where
           empty metadata space cannot be used for data and vice versa)

           on the other hand, the final layout is quite unpredictable and possibly highly
           fragmented, which means worse performance

       no_holes

           (since: 3.14)

           improved representation of file extents where holes are not explicitly stored as an
           extent, saves a few percent of metadata if sparse files are used

       raid1c34

           (since: 5.5)

           extended RAID1 mode with copies on 3 or 4 devices respectively

       raid56

           (since: 3.9)

           the filesystem contains or contained a raid56 profile of block groups

       rmdir_subvol

           (since: 4.18)

           indicate that rmdir(2) syscall can delete an empty subvolume just like an ordinary
           directory. Note that this feature only depends on the kernel version.

       skinny_metadata

           (since: 3.10)

           reduced-size metadata for extent references, saves a few percent of metadata

       send_stream_version

           (since: 5.10)

           number of the highest supported send stream version

       supported_checksums

           (since: 5.5)

           list of checksum algorithms supported by the kernel module, the respective modules or
           built-in implementing the algorithms need to be present to mount the filesystem, see
           CHECKSUM ALGORITHMS

       supported_sectorsizes

           (since: 5.13)

           list of values that are accepted as sector sizes (mkfs.btrfs --sectorsize) by the
           running kernel

       supported_rescue_options

           (since: 5.11)

           list of values for the mount option rescue that are supported by the running kernel,
           see btrfs(5)

       zoned

           (since: 5.12)

           zoned mode is allocation/write friendly to host-managed zoned devices, allocation
           space is partitioned into fixed-size zones that must be updated sequentially, see
           ZONED MODE

   SWAPFILE SUPPORT
       The swapfile is supported since kernel 5.0. Use swapon(8) to activate the swapfile. There
       are some limitations of the implementation in btrfs and linux swap subsystem:

       •    filesystem - must be only single device

       •    filesystem - must have only single data profile

       •    swapfile - the containing subvolume cannot be snapshotted

       •    swapfile - must be preallocated

       •    swapfile - must be nodatacow (ie. also nodatasum)

       •    swapfile - must not be compressed

       The limitations come namely from the COW-based design and mapping layer of blocks that
       allows the advanced features like relocation and multi-device filesystems. However, the
       swap subsystem expects simpler mapping and no background changes of the file blocks once
       they’ve been attached to swap.

       With active swapfiles, the following whole-filesystem operations will skip swapfile
       extents or may fail:

       •    balance - block groups with swapfile extents are skipped and reported, the rest will
           be processed normally

       •    resize grow - unaffected

       •    resize shrink - works as long as the extents are outside of the shrunk range

       •    device add - a new device does not interfere with existing swapfile and this
           operation will work, though no new swapfile can be activated afterwards

       •    device delete - if the device has been added as above, it can be also deleted

       •    device replace - ditto

       When there are no active swapfiles and a whole-filesystem exclusive operation is running
       (ie. balance, device delete, shrink), the swapfiles cannot be temporarily activated. The
       operation must finish first.

       To create and activate a swapfile run the following commands:

           # truncate -s 0 swapfile
           # chattr +C swapfile
           # fallocate -l 2G swapfile
           # chmod 0600 swapfile
           # mkswap swapfile
           # swapon swapfile

       Please note that the UUID returned by the mkswap utility identifies the swap "filesystem"
       and because it’s stored in a file, it’s not generally visible and usable as an identifier
       unlike if it was on a block device.

       The file will appear in /proc/swaps:

           # cat /proc/swaps
           Filename          Type          Size           Used      Priority
           /path/swapfile    file          2097152        0         -2

       The swapfile can be created as one-time operation or, once properly created, activated on
       each boot by the swapon -a command (usually started by the service manager). Add the
       following entry to /etc/fstab, assuming the filesystem that provides the /path has been
       already mounted at this point. Additional mount options relevant for the swapfile can be
       set too (like priority, not the btrfs mount options).

           /path/swapfile        none        swap        defaults      0 0

CHECKSUM ALGORITHMS

       There are several checksum algorithms supported. The default and backward compatible is
       crc32c. Since kernel 5.5 there are three more with different characteristics and
       trade-offs regarding speed and strength. The following list may help you to decide which
       one to select.

       CRC32C (32bit digest)

           default, best backward compatibility, very fast, modern CPUs have instruction-level
           support, not collision-resistant but still good error detection capabilities

       XXHASH (64bit digest)

           can be used as CRC32C successor, very fast, optimized for modern CPUs utilizing
           instruction pipelining, good collision resistance and error detection

       SHA256 (256bit digest)

           a cryptographic-strength hash, relatively slow but with possible CPU instruction
           acceleration or specialized hardware cards, FIPS certified and in wide use

       BLAKE2b (256bit digest)

           a cryptographic-strength hash, relatively fast with possible CPU acceleration using
           SIMD extensions, not standardized but based on BLAKE which was a SHA3 finalist, in
           wide use, the algorithm used is BLAKE2b-256 that’s optimized for 64bit platforms

       The digest size affects overall size of data block checksums stored in the filesystem. The
       metadata blocks have a fixed area up to 256bits (32 bytes), so there’s no increase. Each
       data block has a separate checksum stored, with additional overhead of the b-tree leaves.

       Approximate relative performance of the algorithms, measured against CRC32C using
       reference software implementations on a 3.5GHz intel CPU:

       [ cols="^,>,>,>",width="50%" ]

       ┌────────┬─────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │Digest  │ Cycles/4KiB │ Ratio │ Implementation  │
       ├────────┼─────────────┼───────┼─────────────────┤
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │CRC32C  │ 1700        │ 1.00  │ CPU instruction │
       ├────────┼─────────────┼───────┼─────────────────┤
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │XXHASH  │ 2500        │ 1.44  │ reference impl. │
       ├────────┼─────────────┼───────┼─────────────────┤
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │SHA256  │ 105000      │ 61    │ reference impl. │
       ├────────┼─────────────┼───────┼─────────────────┤
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │SHA256  │ 36000       │ 21    │ libgcrypt/AVX2  │
       ├────────┼─────────────┼───────┼─────────────────┤
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │SHA256  │ 63000       │ 37    │ libsodium/AVX2  │
       ├────────┼─────────────┼───────┼─────────────────┤
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │BLAKE2b │ 22000       │ 13    │ reference impl. │
       ├────────┼─────────────┼───────┼─────────────────┤
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │BLAKE2b │ 19000       │ 11    │ libgcrypt/AVX2  │
       ├────────┼─────────────┼───────┼─────────────────┤
       │        │             │       │                 │
       │BLAKE2b │ 19000       │ 11    │ libsodium/AVX2  │
       └────────┴─────────────┴───────┴─────────────────┘

       Many kernels are configured with SHA256 as built-in and not as a module. The accelerated
       versions are however provided by the modules and must be loaded explicitly (modprobe
       sha256) before mounting the filesystem to make use of them. You can check in
       /sys/fs/btrfs/FSID/checksum which one is used. If you see sha256-generic, then you may
       want to unmount and mount the filesystem again, changing that on a mounted filesystem is
       not possible. Check the file /proc/crypto, when the implementation is built-in, you’d find

           name         : sha256
           driver       : sha256-generic
           module       : kernel
           priority     : 100
           ...

       while accelerated implementation is e.g.

           name         : sha256
           driver       : sha256-avx2
           module       : sha256_ssse3
           priority     : 170
           ...

COMPRESSION

Btrfs supports transparent file compression. There are three algorithms available: ZLIB,
LZO and ZSTD (since v4.14). Basically, compression is on a file by file basis. You can
have a single btrfs mount point that has some files that are uncompressed, some that are
compressed with LZO, some with ZLIB, for instance (though you may not want it that way, it
is supported).

To enable compression, mount the filesystem with options compress or compress-force.
Please refer to section MOUNT OPTIONS. Once compression is enabled, all new writes will be
subject to compression. Some files may not compress very well, and these are typically not
recompressed but still written uncompressed.

Each compression algorithm has different speed/ratio trade offs. The levels can be
selected by a mount option and affect only the resulting size (ie. no compatibility
issues).

Basic characteristics:

ZLIB slower, higher compression ratio

• levels: 1 to 9,
mapped directly,
default level is 3

• good backward
compatibility

LZO faster compression and
decompression than zlib, worse
compression ratio, designed to
be fast

• no levels

• good backward
compatibility

ZSTD compression comparable to zlib
with higher
compression/decompression speeds
and different ratio

• levels: 1 to 15

• since 4.14, levels
since 5.1

The differences depend on the actual data set and cannot be expressed by a single number
or recommendation. Higher levels consume more CPU time and may not bring a significant
improvement, lower levels are close to real time.

The algorithms could be mixed in one file as they’re stored per extent. The compression
can be changed on a file by btrfs filesystem defrag command, using the -c option, or by
btrfs property set using the compression property. Setting compression by chattr +c
utility will set it to zlib.

INCOMPRESSIBLE DATA
Files with already compressed data or with data that won’t compress well with the CPU and
memory constraints of the kernel implementations are using a simple decision logic. If the
first portion of data being compressed is not smaller than the original, the compression
of the file is disabled — unless the filesystem is mounted with compress-force. In that
case compression will always be attempted on the file only to be later discarded. This is
not optimal and subject to optimizations and further development.

If a file is identified as incompressible, a flag is set (NOCOMPRESS) and it’s sticky. On
that file compression won’t be performed unless forced. The flag can be also set by chattr
+m (since e2fsprogs 1.46.2) or by properties with value no or none. Empty value will reset
it to the default that’s currently applicable on the mounted filesystem.

There are two ways to detect incompressible data:

• actual compression attempt - data are compressed, if the result is not smaller, it’s
discarded, so this depends on the algorithm and level

• pre-compression heuristics - a quick statistical evaluation on the data is performed
and based on the result either compression is performed or skipped, the NOCOMPRESS bit
is not set just by the heuristic, only if the compression algorithm does not make an
improvement

PRE-COMPRESSION HEURISTICS
The heuristics aim to do a few quick statistical tests on the compressed data in order to
avoid probably costly compression that would turn out to be inefficient. Compression
algorithms could have internal detection of incompressible data too but this leads to more
overhead as the compression is done in another thread and has to write the data anyway.
The heuristic is read-only and can utilize cached memory.

The tests performed based on the following: data sampling, long repeated pattern
detection, byte frequency, Shannon entropy.

COMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER FEATURES
Compression is done using the COW mechanism so it’s incompatible with nodatacow. Direct IO
works on compressed files but will fall back to buffered writes. Currently nodatasum and
compression don’t work together.

FILESYSTEM EXCLUSIVE OPERATIONS

       There are several operations that affect the whole filesystem and cannot be run in
       parallel. Attempt to start one while another is running will fail.

       Since kernel 5.10 the currently running operation can be obtained from
       /sys/fs/UUID/exclusive_operation with following values and operations:

       •    balance

       •    device add

       •    device delete

       •    device replace

       •    resize

       •    swapfile activate

       •    none

       Enqueuing is supported for several btrfs subcommands so they can be started at once and
       then serialized.

FILESYSTEM LIMITS

       maximum file name length

           255

       maximum symlink target length

           depends on the nodesize value, for 4k it’s 3949 bytes, for larger nodesize it’s 4095
           due to the system limit PATH_MAX

           The symlink target may not be a valid path, ie. the path name components can exceed
           the limits (NAME_MAX), there’s no content validation at symlink(3) creation.

       maximum number of inodes

           264 but depends on the available metadata space as the inodes are created dynamically

       inode numbers

           minimum number: 256 (for subvolumes), regular files and directories: 257

       maximum file length

           inherent limit of btrfs is 264 (16 EiB) but the linux VFS limit is 263 (8 EiB)

       maximum number of subvolumes

           the subvolume ids can go up to 264 but the number of actual subvolumes depends on the
           available metadata space, the space consumed by all subvolume metadata includes
           bookkeeping of shared extents can be large (MiB, GiB)

       maximum number of hardlinks of a file in a directory

           65536 when the extref feature is turned on during mkfs (default), roughly 100
           otherwise

       minimum filesystem size

           the minimal size of each device depends on the mixed-bg feature, without that (the
           default) it’s about 109MiB, with mixed-bg it’s is 16MiB

BOOTLOADER SUPPORT

       GRUB2 (https://www.gnu.org/software/grub) has the most advanced support of booting from
       BTRFS with respect to features.

       U-boot (https://www.denx.de/wiki/U-Boot/) has decent support for booting but not all BTRFS
       features are implemented, check the documentation.

       EXTLINUX (from the https://syslinux.org project) can boot but does not support all
       features. Please check the upstream documentation before you use it.

       The first 1MiB on each device is unused with the exception of primary superblock that is
       on the offset 64KiB and spans 4KiB.

FILE ATTRIBUTES

       The btrfs filesystem supports setting file attributes or flags. Note there are old and new
       interfaces, with confusing names. The following list should clarify that:

       •    attributes: chattr(1) or lsattr(1) utilities (the ioctls are FS_IOC_GETFLAGS and
           FS_IOC_SETFLAGS), due to the ioctl names the attributes are also called flags

       •    xflags: to distinguish from the previous, it’s extended flags, with tunable bits
           similar to the attributes but extensible and new bits will be added in the future (the
           ioctls are FS_IOC_FSGETXATTR and FS_IOC_FSSETXATTR but they are not related to
           extended attributes that are also called xattrs), there’s no standard tool to change
           the bits, there’s support in xfs_io(8) as command xfs_io -c chattr

   ATTRIBUTES
       a

           append only, new writes are always written at the end of the file

       A

           no atime updates

       c

           compress data, all data written after this attribute is set will be compressed. Please
           note that compression is also affected by the mount options or the parent directory
           attributes.

           When set on a directory, all newly created files will inherit this attribute. This
           attribute cannot be set with m at the same time.

       C

           no copy-on-write, file data modifications are done in-place

           When set on a directory, all newly created files will inherit this attribute.

               Note
               due to implementation limitations, this flag can be set/unset only on empty files.

       d

           no dump, makes sense with 3rd party tools like dump(8), on BTRFS the attribute can be
           set/unset but no other special handling is done

       D

           synchronous directory updates, for more details search open(2) for O_SYNC and O_DSYNC

       i

           immutable, no file data and metadata changes allowed even to the root user as long as
           this attribute is set (obviously the exception is unsetting the attribute)

       m

           no compression, permanently turn off compression on the given file. Any compression
           mount options will not affect this file. (chattr support added in 1.46.2)

           When set on a directory, all newly created files will inherit this attribute. This
           attribute cannot be set with c at the same time.

       S

           synchronous updates, for more details search open(2) for O_SYNC and O_DSYNC

       No other attributes are supported. For the complete list please refer to the chattr(1)
       manual page.

   XFLAGS
       There’s overlap of letters assigned to the bits with the attributes, this list refers to
       what xfs_io(8) provides:

       i

           immutable, same as the attribute

       a

           append only, same as the attribute

       s

           synchronous updates, same as the attribute S

       A

           no atime updates, same as the attribute

       d

           no dump, same as the attribute

ZONED MODE

Since version 5.12 btrfs supports so called zoned mode. This is a special on-disk format
and allocation/write strategy that’s friendly to zoned devices. In short, a device is
partitioned into fixed-size zones and each zone can be updated by append-only manner, or
reset. As btrfs has no fixed data structures, except the super blocks, the zoned mode only
requires block placement that follows the device constraints. You can learn about the
whole architecture at https://zonedstorage.io .

The devices are also called SMR/ZBC/ZNS, in host-managed mode. Note that there are devices
that appear as non-zoned but actually are, this is drive-managed and using zoned mode
won’t help.

The zone size depends on the device, typical sizes are 256MiB or 1GiB. In general it must
be a power of two. Emulated zoned devices like null_blk allow to set various zone sizes.

REQUIREMENTS, LIMITATIONS
• all devices must have the same zone size

• maximum zone size is 8GiB

• mixing zoned and non-zoned devices is possible, the zone writes are emulated, but
this is namely for testing

• the super block is handled in a special way and is at different locations than on a
non-zoned filesystem:

• primary: 0B (and the next two zones)

• secondary: 512G (and the next two zones)

• tertiary: 4TiB (4096GiB, and the next two zones)

INCOMPATIBLE FEATURES
The main constraint of the zoned devices is lack of in-place update of the data. This is
inherently incompatbile with some features:

• nodatacow - overwrite in-place, cannot create such files

• fallocate - preallocating space for in-place first write

• mixed-bg - unordered writes to data and metadata, fixing that means using separate
data and metadata block groups

• booting - the zone at offset 0 contains superblock, resetting the zone would destroy
the bootloader data

Initial support lacks some features but they’re planned:

• only single profile is supported

• fstrim - due to dependency on free space cache v1

SUPER BLOCK
As said above, super block is handled in a special way. In order to be crash safe, at
least one zone in a known location must contain a valid superblock. This is implemented as
a ring buffer in two consecutive zones, starting from known offsets 0, 512G and 4TiB. The
values are different than on non-zoned devices. Each new super block is appended to the
end of the zone, once it’s filled, the zone is reset and writes continue to the next one.
Looking up the latest super block needs to read offsets of both zones and determine the
last written version.

The amount of space reserved for super block depends on the zone size. The secondary and
tertiary copies are at distant offsets as the capacity of the devices is expected to be
large, tens of terabytes. Maximum zone size supported is 8GiB, which would mean that eg.
offset 0-16GiB would be reserved just for the super block on a hypothetical device of that
zone size. This is wasteful but required to guarantee crash safety.

CONTROL DEVICE

       There’s a character special device /dev/btrfs-control with major and minor numbers 10 and
       234 (the device can be found under the misc category).

           $ ls -l /dev/btrfs-control
           crw------- 1 root root 10, 234 Jan  1 12:00 /dev/btrfs-control

       The device accepts some ioctl calls that can perform following actions on the filesystem
       module:

       •    scan devices for btrfs filesystem (ie. to let multi-device filesystems mount
           automatically) and register them with the kernel module

       •    similar to scan, but also wait until the device scanning process is finished for a
           given filesystem

       •    get the supported features (can be also found under /sys/fs/btrfs/features)

       The device is created when btrfs is initialized, either as a module or a built-in
       functionality and makes sense only in connection with that. Running eg. mkfs without the
       module loaded will not register the device and will probably warn about that.

       In rare cases when the module is loaded but the device is not present (most likely
       accidentally deleted), it’s possible to recreate it by

           # mknod --mode=600 /dev/btrfs-control c 10 234

       or (since 5.11) by a convenience command

           # btrfs rescue create-control-device

       The control device is not strictly required but the device scanning will not work and a
       workaround would need to be used to mount a multi-device filesystem. The mount option
       device can trigger the device scanning during mount, see also btrfs device scan.

FILESYSTEM WITH MULTIPLE PROFILES

It is possible that a btrfs filesystem contains multiple block group profiles of the same
type. This could happen when a profile conversion using balance filters is interrupted
(see btrfs-balance(8)). Some btrfs commands perform a test to detect this kind of
condition and print a warning like this:

WARNING: Multiple block group profiles detected, see 'man btrfs(5)'.
WARNING: Data: single, raid1
WARNING: Metadata: single, raid1

The corresponding output of btrfs filesystem df might look like:

WARNING: Multiple block group profiles detected, see 'man btrfs(5)'.
WARNING: Data: single, raid1
WARNING: Metadata: single, raid1
Data, RAID1: total=832.00MiB, used=0.00B
Data, single: total=1.63GiB, used=0.00B
System, single: total=4.00MiB, used=16.00KiB
Metadata, single: total=8.00MiB, used=112.00KiB
Metadata, RAID1: total=64.00MiB, used=32.00KiB
GlobalReserve, single: total=16.25MiB, used=0.00B

There’s more than one line for type Data and Metadata, while the profiles are single and
RAID1.

This state of the filesystem OK but most likely needs the user/administrator to take an
action and finish the interrupted tasks. This cannot be easily done automatically, also
the user knows the expected final profiles.

In the example above, the filesystem started as a single device and single block group
profile. Then another device was added, followed by balance with convert=raid1 but for
some reason hasn’t finished. Restarting the balance with convert=raid1 will continue and
end up with filesystem with all block group profiles RAID1.

Note
If you’re familiar with balance filters, you can use
convert=raid1,profiles=single,soft, which will take only the unconverted single
profiles and convert them to raid1. This may speed up the conversion as it would not
try to rewrite the already convert raid1 profiles.

Having just one profile is desired as this also clearly defines the profile of newly
allocated block groups, otherwise this depends on internal allocation policy. When there
are multiple profiles present, the order of selection is RAID6, RAID5, RAID10, RAID1,
RAID0 as long as the device number constraints are satisfied.

Commands that print the warning were chosen so they’re brought to user attention when the
filesystem state is being changed in that regard. This is: device add, device delete,
balance cancel, balance pause. Commands that report space usage: filesystem df, device
usage. The command filesystem usage provides a line in the overall summary:

Multiple profiles: yes (data, metadata)

SEEDING DEVICE

The COW mechanism and multiple devices under one hood enable an interesting concept,
called a seeding device: extending a read-only filesystem on a single device filesystem
with another device that captures all writes. For example imagine an immutable golden
image of an operating system enhanced with another device that allows to use the data from
the golden image and normal operation. This idea originated on CD-ROMs with base OS and
allowing to use them for live systems, but this became obsolete. There are technologies
providing similar functionality, like unionmount, overlayfs or qcow2 image snapshot.

The seeding device starts as a normal filesystem, once the contents is ready, btrfstune -S
1 is used to flag it as a seeding device. Mounting such device will not allow any writes,
except adding a new device by btrfs device add. Then the filesystem can be remounted as
read-write.

Given that the filesystem on the seeding device is always recognized as read-only, it can
be used to seed multiple filesystems, at the same time. The UUID that is normally attached
to a device is automatically changed to a random UUID on each mount.

Once the seeding device is mounted, it needs the writable device. After adding it,
something like remount -o remount,rw /path makes the filesystem at /path ready for use.
The simplest usecase is to throw away all changes by unmounting the filesystem when
convenient.

Alternatively, deleting the seeding device from the filesystem can turn it into a normal
filesystem, provided that the writable device can also contain all the data from the
seeding device.

The seeding device flag can be cleared again by btrfstune -f -s 0, eg. allowing to update
with newer data but please note that this will invalidate all existing filesystems that
use this particular seeding device. This works for some usecases, not for others, and a
forcing flag to the command is mandatory to avoid accidental mistakes.

Example how to create and use one seeding device:

# mkfs.btrfs /dev/sda
# mount /dev/sda /mnt/mnt1
# ... fill mnt1 with data
# umount /mnt/mnt1
# btrfstune -S 1 /dev/sda
# mount /dev/sda /mnt/mnt1
# btrfs device add /dev/sdb /mnt
# mount -o remount,rw /mnt/mnt1
# ... /mnt/mnt1 is now writable

Now /mnt/mnt1 can be used normally. The device /dev/sda can be mounted again with a
another writable device:

# mount /dev/sda /mnt/mnt2
# btrfs device add /dev/sdc /mnt/mnt2
# mount -o remount,rw /mnt/mnt2
# ... /mnt/mnt2 is now writable

The writable device (/dev/sdb) can be decoupled from the seeding device and used
independently:

# btrfs device delete /dev/sda /mnt/mnt1

As the contents originated in the seeding device, it’s possible to turn /dev/sdb to a
seeding device again and repeat the whole process.

A few things to note:

• it’s recommended to use only single device for the seeding device, it works for
multiple devices but the single profile must be used in order to make the seeding
device deletion work

• block group profiles single and dup support the usecases above

• the label is copied from the seeding device and can be changed by btrfs filesystem
label

• each new mount of the seeding device gets a new random UUID

RAID56 STATUS AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

The RAID56 feature provides striping and parity over several devices, same as the
traditional RAID5/6. There are some implementation and design deficiencies that make it
unreliable for some corner cases and the feature should not be used in production, only
for evaluation or testing. The power failure safety for metadata with RAID56 is not 100%.

Metadata
Do not use raid5 nor raid6 for metadata. Use raid1 or raid1c3 respectively.

The substitute profiles provide the same guarantees against loss of 1 or 2 devices, and in
some respect can be an improvement. Recovering from one missing device will only need to
access the remaining 1st or 2nd copy, that in general may be stored on some other devices
due to the way RAID1 works on btrfs, unlike on a striped profile (similar to raid0) that
would need all devices all the time.

The space allocation pattern and consumption is different (eg. on N devices): for raid5 as
an example, a 1GiB chunk is reserved on each device, while with raid1 there’s each 1GiB
chunk stored on 2 devices. The consumption of each 1GiB of used metadata is then N * 1GiB
for vs 2 * 1GiB. Using raid1 is also more convenient for balancing/converting to other
profile due to lower requirement on the available chunk space.

Missing/incomplete support
When RAID56 is on the same filesystem with different raid profiles, the space reporting is
inaccurate, eg. df, btrfs filesystem df or btrfs filesystem usge. When there’s only a one
profile per block group type (eg. raid5 for data) the reporting is accurate.

When scrub is started on a RAID56 filesystem, it’s started on all devices that degrade the
performance. The workaround is to start it on each device separately. Due to that the
device stats may not match the actual state and some errors might get reported multiple
times.

The write hole problem.

STORAGE MODEL

A storage model is a model that captures key physical aspects of data structure in a data
store. A filesystem is the logical structure organizing data on top of the storage device.

The filesystem assumes several features or limitations of the storage device and utilizes
them or applies measures to guarantee reliability. BTRFS in particular is based on a COW
(copy on write) mode of writing, ie. not updating data in place but rather writing a new
copy to a different location and then atomically switching the pointers.

In an ideal world, the device does what it promises. The filesystem assumes that this may
not be true so additional mechanisms are applied to either detect misbehaving hardware or
get valid data by other means. The devices may (and do) apply their own detection and
repair mechanisms but we won’t assume any.

The following assumptions about storage devices are considered (sorted by importance,
numbers are for further reference):

1. atomicity of reads and writes of blocks/sectors (the smallest unit of data the device
presents to the upper layers)

2. there’s a flush command that instructs the device to forcibly order writes before and
after the command; alternatively there’s a barrier command that facilitates the
ordering but may not flush the data

3. data sent to write to a given device offset will be written without further changes
to the data and to the offset

4. writes can be reordered by the device, unless explicitly serialized by the flush
command

5. reads and writes can be freely reordered and interleaved

The consistency model of BTRFS builds on these assumptions. The logical data updates are
grouped, into a generation, written on the device, serialized by the flush command and
then the super block is written ending the generation. All logical links among metadata
comprising a consistent view of the data may not cross the generation boundary.

WHEN THINGS GO WRONG
No or partial atomicity of block reads/writes (1)

• Problem: a partial block contents is written (torn write), eg. due to a power glitch
or other electronics failure during the read/write

• Detection: checksum mismatch on read

• Repair: use another copy or rebuild from multiple blocks using some encoding scheme

The flush command does not flush (2)

This is perhaps the most serious problem and impossible to mitigate by filesystem without
limitations and design restrictions. What could happen in the worst case is that writes
from one generation bleed to another one, while still letting the filesystem consider the
generations isolated. Crash at any point would leave data on the device in an inconsistent
state without any hint what exactly got written, what is missing and leading to stale
metadata link information.

Devices usually honor the flush command, but for performance reasons may do internal
caching, where the flushed data are not yet persistently stored. A power failure could
lead to a similar scenario as above, although it’s less likely that later writes would be
written before the cached ones. This is beyond what a filesystem can take into account.
Devices or controllers are usually equipped with batteries or capacitors to write the
cache contents even after power is cut. (Battery backed write cache)

Data get silently changed on write (3)

Such thing should not happen frequently, but still can happen spuriously due the complex
internal workings of devices or physical effects of the storage media itself.

• Problem: while the data are written atomically, the contents get changed

• Detection: checksum mismatch on read

• Repair: use another copy or rebuild from multiple blocks using some encoding scheme

Data get silently written to another offset (3)

This would be another serious problem as the filesystem has no information when it
happens. For that reason the measures have to be done ahead of time. This problem is also
commonly called ghost write.

The metadata blocks have the checksum embedded in the blocks, so a correct atomic write
would not corrupt the checksum. It’s likely that after reading such block the data inside
would not be consistent with the rest. To rule that out there’s embedded block number in
the metadata block. It’s the logical block number because this is what the logical
structure expects and verifies.

HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS

The following is based on information publicly available, user feedback, community
discussions or bug report analyses. It’s not complete and further research is encouraged
when in doubt.

MAIN MEMORY
The data structures and raw data blocks are temporarily stored in computer memory before
they get written to the device. It is critical that memory is reliable because even simple
bit flips can have vast consequences and lead to damaged structures, not only in the
filesystem but in the whole operating system.

Based on experience in the community, memory bit flips are more common than one would
think. When it happens, it’s reported by the tree-checker or by a checksum mismatch after
reading blocks. There are some very obvious instances of bit flips that happen, e.g. in an
ordered sequence of keys in metadata blocks. We can easily infer from the other data what
values get damaged and how. However, fixing that is not straightforward and would require
cross-referencing data from the entire filesystem to see the scope.

If available, ECC memory should lower the chances of bit flips, but this type of memory is
not available in all cases. A memory test should be performed in case there’s a visible
bit flip pattern, though this may not detect a faulty memory module because the actual
load of the system could be the factor making the problems appear. In recent years attacks
on how the memory modules operate have been demonstrated (rowhammer) achieving specific
bits to be flipped. While these were targeted, this shows that a series of reads or writes
can affect unrelated parts of memory.

NAME

DESCRIPTION

MOUNT OPTIONS

FILESYSTEM FEATURES

CHECKSUM ALGORITHMS

COMPRESSION

FILESYSTEM EXCLUSIVE OPERATIONS

FILESYSTEM LIMITS

BOOTLOADER SUPPORT

FILE ATTRIBUTES

ZONED MODE

CONTROL DEVICE

FILESYSTEM WITH MULTIPLE PROFILES

SEEDING DEVICE

RAID56 STATUS AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

STORAGE MODEL

HARDWARE CONSIDERATIONS

SEE ALSO