Provided by: libcurl4-doc_7.58.0-2ubuntu3.24_all 
NAME
libcurl-tutorial - libcurl programming tutorial
Objective
This document attempts to describe the general principles and some basic approaches to
consider when programming with libcurl. The text will focus mainly on the C interface but
might apply fairly well on other interfaces as well as they usually follow the C one
pretty closely.
This document will refer to 'the user' as the person writing the source code that uses
libcurl. That would probably be you or someone in your position. What will be generally
referred to as 'the program' will be the collected source code that you write that is
using libcurl for transfers. The program is outside libcurl and libcurl is outside of the
program.
To get more details on all options and functions described herein, please refer to their
respective man pages.
Building
There are many different ways to build C programs. This chapter will assume a Unix style
build process. If you use a different build system, you can still read this to get general
information that may apply to your environment as well.
Compiling the Program
Your compiler needs to know where the libcurl headers are located. Therefore you
must set your compiler's include path to point to the directory where you installed
them. The 'curl-config'[3] tool can be used to get this information:
$ curl-config --cflags
Linking the Program with libcurl
When having compiled the program, you need to link your object files to create a
single executable. For that to succeed, you need to link with libcurl and possibly
also with other libraries that libcurl itself depends on. Like the OpenSSL
libraries, but even some standard OS libraries may be needed on the command line.
To figure out which flags to use, once again the 'curl-config' tool comes to the
rescue:
$ curl-config --libs
SSL or Not
libcurl can be built and customized in many ways. One of the things that varies
from different libraries and builds is the support for SSL-based transfers, like
HTTPS and FTPS. If a supported SSL library was detected properly at build-time,
libcurl will be built with SSL support. To figure out if an installed libcurl has
been built with SSL support enabled, use 'curl-config' like this:
$ curl-config --feature
And if SSL is supported, the keyword 'SSL' will be written to stdout, possibly
together with a few other features that could be either on or off on for different
libcurls.
See also the "Features libcurl Provides" further down.
autoconf macro
When you write your configure script to detect libcurl and setup variables
accordingly, we offer a prewritten macro that probably does everything you need in
this area. See docs/libcurl/libcurl.m4 file - it includes docs on how to use it.
Portable Code in a Portable World
The people behind libcurl have put a considerable effort to make libcurl work on a large
amount of different operating systems and environments.
You program libcurl the same way on all platforms that libcurl runs on. There are only
very few minor considerations that differ. If you just make sure to write your code
portable enough, you may very well create yourself a very portable program. libcurl
shouldn't stop you from that.
Global Preparation
The program must initialize some of the libcurl functionality globally. That means it
should be done exactly once, no matter how many times you intend to use the library. Once
for your program's entire life time. This is done using
curl_global_init()
and it takes one parameter which is a bit pattern that tells libcurl what to initialize.
Using CURL_GLOBAL_ALL will make it initialize all known internal sub modules, and might be
a good default option. The current two bits that are specified are:
CURL_GLOBAL_WIN32
which only does anything on Windows machines. When used on a Windows
machine, it'll make libcurl initialize the win32 socket stuff. Without
having that initialized properly, your program cannot use sockets properly.
You should only do this once for each application, so if your program
already does this or of another library in use does it, you should not tell
libcurl to do this as well.
CURL_GLOBAL_SSL
which only does anything on libcurls compiled and built SSL-enabled. On
these systems, this will make libcurl initialize the SSL library properly
for this application. This only needs to be done once for each application
so if your program or another library already does this, this bit should not
be needed.
libcurl has a default protection mechanism that detects if curl_global_init(3) hasn't been
called by the time curl_easy_perform(3) is called and if that is the case, libcurl runs
the function itself with a guessed bit pattern. Please note that depending solely on this
is not considered nice nor very good.
When the program no longer uses libcurl, it should call curl_global_cleanup(3), which is
the opposite of the init call. It will then do the reversed operations to cleanup the
resources the curl_global_init(3) call initialized.
Repeated calls to curl_global_init(3) and curl_global_cleanup(3) should be avoided. They
should only be called once each.
Features libcurl Provides
It is considered best-practice to determine libcurl features at run-time rather than at
build-time (if possible of course). By calling curl_version_info(3) and checking out the
details of the returned struct, your program can figure out exactly what the currently
running libcurl supports.
Two Interfaces
libcurl first introduced the so called easy interface. All operations in the easy
interface are prefixed with 'curl_easy'. The easy interface lets you do single transfers
with a synchronous and blocking function call.
libcurl also offers another interface that allows multiple simultaneous transfers in a
single thread, the so called multi interface. More about that interface is detailed in a
separate chapter further down. You still need to understand the easy interface first, so
please continue reading for better understanding.
Handle the Easy libcurl
To use the easy interface, you must first create yourself an easy handle. You need one
handle for each easy session you want to perform. Basically, you should use one handle for
every thread you plan to use for transferring. You must never share the same handle in
multiple threads.
Get an easy handle with
easyhandle = curl_easy_init();
It returns an easy handle. Using that you proceed to the next step: setting up your
preferred actions. A handle is just a logic entity for the upcoming transfer or series of
transfers.
You set properties and options for this handle using curl_easy_setopt(3). They control how
the subsequent transfer or transfers will be made. Options remain set in the handle until
set again to something different. They are sticky. Multiple requests using the same handle
will use the same options.
If you at any point would like to blank all previously set options for a single easy
handle, you can call curl_easy_reset(3) and you can also make a clone of an easy handle
(with all its set options) using curl_easy_duphandle(3).
Many of the options you set in libcurl are "strings", pointers to data terminated with a
zero byte. When you set strings with curl_easy_setopt(3), libcurl makes its own copy so
that they don't need to be kept around in your application after being set[4].
One of the most basic properties to set in the handle is the URL. You set your preferred
URL to transfer with CURLOPT_URL(3) in a manner similar to:
curl_easy_setopt(handle, CURLOPT_URL, "http://domain.com/");
Let's assume for a while that you want to receive data as the URL identifies a remote
resource you want to get here. Since you write a sort of application that needs this
transfer, I assume that you would like to get the data passed to you directly instead of
simply getting it passed to stdout. So, you write your own function that matches this
prototype:
size_t write_data(void *buffer, size_t size, size_t nmemb, void *userp);
You tell libcurl to pass all data to this function by issuing a function similar to this:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_WRITEFUNCTION, write_data);
You can control what data your callback function gets in the fourth argument by setting
another property:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_WRITEDATA, &internal_struct);
Using that property, you can easily pass local data between your application and the
function that gets invoked by libcurl. libcurl itself won't touch the data you pass with
CURLOPT_WRITEDATA(3).
libcurl offers its own default internal callback that will take care of the data if you
don't set the callback with CURLOPT_WRITEFUNCTION(3). It will then simply output the
received data to stdout. You can have the default callback write the data to a different
file handle by passing a 'FILE *' to a file opened for writing with the
CURLOPT_WRITEDATA(3) option.
Now, we need to take a step back and have a deep breath. Here's one of those rare
platform-dependent nitpicks. Did you spot it? On some platforms[2], libcurl won't be able
to operate on files opened by the program. Thus, if you use the default callback and pass
in an open file with CURLOPT_WRITEDATA(3), it will crash. You should therefore avoid this
to make your program run fine virtually everywhere.
(CURLOPT_WRITEDATA(3) was formerly known as CURLOPT_FILE. Both names still work and do the
same thing).
If you're using libcurl as a win32 DLL, you MUST use the CURLOPT_WRITEFUNCTION(3) if you
set CURLOPT_WRITEDATA(3) - or you will experience crashes.
There are of course many more options you can set, and we'll get back to a few of them
later. Let's instead continue to the actual transfer:
success = curl_easy_perform(easyhandle);
curl_easy_perform(3) will connect to the remote site, do the necessary commands and
receive the transfer. Whenever it receives data, it calls the callback function we
previously set. The function may get one byte at a time, or it may get many kilobytes at
once. libcurl delivers as much as possible as often as possible. Your callback function
should return the number of bytes it "took care of". If that is not the exact same amount
of bytes that was passed to it, libcurl will abort the operation and return with an error
code.
When the transfer is complete, the function returns a return code that informs you if it
succeeded in its mission or not. If a return code isn't enough for you, you can use the
CURLOPT_ERRORBUFFER(3) to point libcurl to a buffer of yours where it'll store a human
readable error message as well.
If you then want to transfer another file, the handle is ready to be used again. Mind you,
it is even preferred that you re-use an existing handle if you intend to make another
transfer. libcurl will then attempt to re-use the previous connection.
For some protocols, downloading a file can involve a complicated process of logging in,
setting the transfer mode, changing the current directory and finally transferring the
file data. libcurl takes care of all that complication for you. Given simply the URL to a
file, libcurl will take care of all the details needed to get the file moved from one
machine to another.
Multi-threading Issues
libcurl is thread safe but there are a few exceptions. Refer to libcurl-thread(3) for more
information.
When It Doesn't Work
There will always be times when the transfer fails for some reason. You might have set the
wrong libcurl option or misunderstood what the libcurl option actually does, or the remote
server might return non-standard replies that confuse the library which then confuses your
program.
There's one golden rule when these things occur: set the CURLOPT_VERBOSE(3) option to 1.
It'll cause the library to spew out the entire protocol details it sends, some internal
info and some received protocol data as well (especially when using FTP). If you're using
HTTP, adding the headers in the received output to study is also a clever way to get a
better understanding why the server behaves the way it does. Include headers in the normal
body output with CURLOPT_HEADER(3) set 1.
Of course, there are bugs left. We need to know about them to be able to fix them, so
we're quite dependent on your bug reports! When you do report suspected bugs in libcurl,
please include as many details as you possibly can: a protocol dump that
CURLOPT_VERBOSE(3) produces, library version, as much as possible of your code that uses
libcurl, operating system name and version, compiler name and version etc.
If CURLOPT_VERBOSE(3) is not enough, you increase the level of debug data your application
receive by using the CURLOPT_DEBUGFUNCTION(3).
Getting some in-depth knowledge about the protocols involved is never wrong, and if you're
trying to do funny things, you might very well understand libcurl and how to use it better
if you study the appropriate RFC documents at least briefly.
Upload Data to a Remote Site
libcurl tries to keep a protocol independent approach to most transfers, thus uploading to
a remote FTP site is very similar to uploading data to a HTTP server with a PUT request.
Of course, first you either create an easy handle or you re-use one existing one. Then you
set the URL to operate on just like before. This is the remote URL, that we now will
upload.
Since we write an application, we most likely want libcurl to get the upload data by
asking us for it. To make it do that, we set the read callback and the custom pointer
libcurl will pass to our read callback. The read callback should have a prototype similar
to:
size_t function(char *bufptr, size_t size, size_t nitems, void *userp);
Where bufptr is the pointer to a buffer we fill in with data to upload and size*nitems is
the size of the buffer and therefore also the maximum amount of data we can return to
libcurl in this call. The 'userp' pointer is the custom pointer we set to point to a
struct of ours to pass private data between the application and the callback.
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_READFUNCTION, read_function);
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_READDATA, &filedata);
Tell libcurl that we want to upload:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_UPLOAD, 1L);
A few protocols won't behave properly when uploads are done without any prior knowledge of
the expected file size. So, set the upload file size using the CURLOPT_INFILESIZE_LARGE(3)
for all known file sizes like this[1]:
/* in this example, file_size must be an curl_off_t variable */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_INFILESIZE_LARGE, file_size);
When you call curl_easy_perform(3) this time, it'll perform all the necessary operations
and when it has invoked the upload it'll call your supplied callback to get the data to
upload. The program should return as much data as possible in every invoke, as that is
likely to make the upload perform as fast as possible. The callback should return the
number of bytes it wrote in the buffer. Returning 0 will signal the end of the upload.
Passwords
Many protocols use or even require that user name and password are provided to be able to
download or upload the data of your choice. libcurl offers several ways to specify them.
Most protocols support that you specify the name and password in the URL itself. libcurl
will detect this and use them accordingly. This is written like this:
protocol://user:password@example.com/path/
If you need any odd letters in your user name or password, you should enter them URL
encoded, as %XX where XX is a two-digit hexadecimal number.
libcurl also provides options to set various passwords. The user name and password as
shown embedded in the URL can instead get set with the CURLOPT_USERPWD(3) option. The
argument passed to libcurl should be a char * to a string in the format "user:password".
In a manner like this:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_USERPWD, "myname:thesecret");
Another case where name and password might be needed at times, is for those users who need
to authenticate themselves to a proxy they use. libcurl offers another option for this,
the CURLOPT_PROXYUSERPWD(3). It is used quite similar to the CURLOPT_USERPWD(3) option
like this:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_PROXYUSERPWD, "myname:thesecret");
There's a long time Unix "standard" way of storing FTP user names and passwords, namely in
the $HOME/.netrc file. The file should be made private so that only the user may read it
(see also the "Security Considerations" chapter), as it might contain the password in
plain text. libcurl has the ability to use this file to figure out what set of user name
and password to use for a particular host. As an extension to the normal functionality,
libcurl also supports this file for non-FTP protocols such as HTTP. To make curl use this
file, use the CURLOPT_NETRC(3) option:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_NETRC, 1L);
And a very basic example of how such a .netrc file may look like:
machine myhost.mydomain.com
login userlogin
password secretword
All these examples have been cases where the password has been optional, or at least you
could leave it out and have libcurl attempt to do its job without it. There are times when
the password isn't optional, like when you're using an SSL private key for secure
transfers.
To pass the known private key password to libcurl:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_KEYPASSWD, "keypassword");
HTTP Authentication
The previous chapter showed how to set user name and password for getting URLs that
require authentication. When using the HTTP protocol, there are many different ways a
client can provide those credentials to the server and you can control which way libcurl
will (attempt to) use them. The default HTTP authentication method is called 'Basic',
which is sending the name and password in clear-text in the HTTP request, base64-encoded.
This is insecure.
At the time of this writing, libcurl can be built to use: Basic, Digest, NTLM, Negotiate
(SPNEGO). You can tell libcurl which one to use with CURLOPT_HTTPAUTH(3) as in:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTPAUTH, CURLAUTH_DIGEST);
And when you send authentication to a proxy, you can also set authentication type the same
way but instead with CURLOPT_PROXYAUTH(3):
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_PROXYAUTH, CURLAUTH_NTLM);
Both these options allow you to set multiple types (by ORing them together), to make
libcurl pick the most secure one out of the types the server/proxy claims to support. This
method does however add a round-trip since libcurl must first ask the server what it
supports:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTPAUTH,
CURLAUTH_DIGEST|CURLAUTH_BASIC);
For convenience, you can use the 'CURLAUTH_ANY' define (instead of a list with specific
types) which allows libcurl to use whatever method it wants.
When asking for multiple types, libcurl will pick the available one it considers "best" in
its own internal order of preference.
HTTP POSTing
We get many questions regarding how to issue HTTP POSTs with libcurl the proper way. This
chapter will thus include examples using both different versions of HTTP POST that libcurl
supports.
The first version is the simple POST, the most common version, that most HTML pages using
the <form> tag uses. We provide a pointer to the data and tell libcurl to post it all to
the remote site:
char *data="name=daniel&project=curl";
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_POSTFIELDS, data);
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_URL, "http://posthere.com/");
curl_easy_perform(easyhandle); /* post away! */
Simple enough, huh? Since you set the POST options with the CURLOPT_POSTFIELDS(3), this
automatically switches the handle to use POST in the upcoming request.
Ok, so what if you want to post binary data that also requires you to set the Content-
Type: header of the post? Well, binary posts prevent libcurl from being able to do
strlen() on the data to figure out the size, so therefore we must tell libcurl the size of
the post data. Setting headers in libcurl requests are done in a generic way, by building
a list of our own headers and then passing that list to libcurl.
struct curl_slist *headers=NULL;
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "Content-Type: text/xml");
/* post binary data */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_POSTFIELDS, binaryptr);
/* set the size of the postfields data */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_POSTFIELDSIZE, 23L);
/* pass our list of custom made headers */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTPHEADER, headers);
curl_easy_perform(easyhandle); /* post away! */
curl_slist_free_all(headers); /* free the header list */
While the simple examples above cover the majority of all cases where HTTP POST operations
are required, they don't do multi-part formposts. Multi-part formposts were introduced as
a better way to post (possibly large) binary data and were first documented in the RFC1867
(updated in RFC2388). They're called multi-part because they're built by a chain of parts,
each part being a single unit of data. Each part has its own name and contents. You can in
fact create and post a multi-part formpost with the regular libcurl POST support described
above, but that would require that you build a formpost yourself and provide to libcurl.
To make that easier, libcurl provides a MIME API consisting in several functions: using
those, you can create and fill a multi-part form. Function curl_mime_init(3) creates a
multi-part body; you can then append new parts to a multi-part body using
curl_mime_addpart(3). There are three possible data sources for a part: memory using
curl_mime_data(3), file using curl_mime_filedata(3) and user-defined data read callback
using curl_mime_data_cb(3). curl_mime_name(3) sets a part's (i.e.: form field) name,
while curl_mime_filename(3) fills in the remote file name. With curl_mime_type(3), you can
tell the MIME type of a part, curl_mime_headers(3) allows defining the part's headers.
When a multi-part body is no longer needed, you can destroy it using curl_mime_free(3).
The following example sets two simple text parts with plain textual contents, and then a
file with binary contents and uploads the whole thing.
curl_mime *multipart = curl_mime_init(easyhandle);
curl_mimepart *part = curl_mime_addpart(mutipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "name");
curl_mime_data(part, "daniel", CURL_ZERO_TERMINATED);
part = curl_mime_addpart(mutipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "project");
curl_mime_data(part, "curl", CURL_ZERO_TERMINATED);
part = curl_mime_addpart(mutipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "logotype-image");
curl_mime_filedata(part, "curl.png");
/* Set the form info */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_MIMEPOST, multipart);
curl_easy_perform(easyhandle); /* post away! */
/* free the post data again */
curl_mime_free(multipart);
To post multiple files for a single form field, you must supply each file in a separate
part, all with the same field name. Although function curl_mime_subparts(3) implements
nested muti-parts, this way of multiple files posting is deprecated by RFC 7578, chapter
4.3.
To set the data source from an already opened FILE pointer, use:
curl_mime_data_cb(part, filesize, (curl_read_callback) fread,
(curl_seek_callback) fseek, NULL, filepointer);
A deprecated curl_formadd(3) function is still supported in libcurl. It should however
not be used anymore for new designs and programs using it ought to be converted to the
MIME API. It is however described here as an aid to conversion.
Using curl_formadd, you add parts to the form. When you're done adding parts, you post the
whole form.
The MIME API example above is expressed as follows using this function:
struct curl_httppost *post=NULL;
struct curl_httppost *last=NULL;
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "name",
CURLFORM_COPYCONTENTS, "daniel", CURLFORM_END);
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "project",
CURLFORM_COPYCONTENTS, "curl", CURLFORM_END);
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "logotype-image",
CURLFORM_FILECONTENT, "curl.png", CURLFORM_END);
/* Set the form info */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTPPOST, post);
curl_easy_perform(easyhandle); /* post away! */
/* free the post data again */
curl_formfree(post);
Multipart formposts are chains of parts using MIME-style separators and headers. It means
that each one of these separate parts get a few headers set that describe the individual
content-type, size etc. To enable your application to handicraft this formpost even more,
libcurl allows you to supply your own set of custom headers to such an individual form
part. You can of course supply headers to as many parts as you like, but this little
example will show how you set headers to one specific part when you add that to the post
handle:
struct curl_slist *headers=NULL;
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "Content-Type: text/xml");
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "logotype-image",
CURLFORM_FILECONTENT, "curl.xml",
CURLFORM_CONTENTHEADER, headers,
CURLFORM_END);
curl_easy_perform(easyhandle); /* post away! */
curl_formfree(post); /* free post */
curl_slist_free_all(headers); /* free custom header list */
Since all options on an easyhandle are "sticky", they remain the same until changed even
if you do call curl_easy_perform(3), you may need to tell curl to go back to a plain GET
request if you intend to do one as your next request. You force an easyhandle to go back
to GET by using the CURLOPT_HTTPGET(3) option:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTPGET, 1L);
Just setting CURLOPT_POSTFIELDS(3) to "" or NULL will *not* stop libcurl from doing a
POST. It will just make it POST without any data to send!
Converting from deprecated form API to MIME API
Four rules have to be respected in building the multi-part:
- The easy handle must be created before building the multi-part.
- The multi-part is always created by a call to curl_mime_init(easyhandle).
- Each part is created by a call to curl_mime_addpart(multipart).
- When complete, the multi-part must be bound to the easy handle using CURLOPT_MIMEPOST(3)
instead of CURLOPT_HTTPPOST(3).
Here are some example of curl_formadd calls to MIME API sequences:
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "id",
CURLFORM_COPYCONTENTS, "daniel", CURLFORM_END);
CURLFORM_CONTENTHEADER, headers,
CURLFORM_END);
becomes:
part = curl_mime_addpart(multipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "id");
curl_mime_data(part, "daniel", CURL_ZERO_TERMINATED);
curl_mime_headers(part, headers, FALSE);
Setting the last curl_mime_headers argument to TRUE would have caused the headers to be
automatically released upon destroyed the multi-part, thus saving a clean-up call to
curl_slist_free_all(3).
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_PTRNAME, "logotype-image",
CURLFORM_FILECONTENT, "-",
CURLFORM_END);
becomes:
part = curl_mime_addpart(multipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "logotype-image");
curl_mime_data_cb(part, (curl_off_t) -1, fread, fseek, NULL, stdin);
curl_mime_name always copies the field name. The special file name "-" is not supported by
curl_mime_file: to read an open file, use a callback source using fread(). The transfer
will be chunked since the data size is unknown.
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "datafile[]",
CURLFORM_FILE, "file1",
CURLFORM_FILE, "file2",
CURLFORM_END);
becomes:
part = curl_mime_addpart(multipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "datafile[]");
curl_mime_filedata(part, "file1");
part = curl_mime_addpart(multipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "datafile[]");
curl_mime_filedata(part, "file2");
The deprecated multipart/mixed implementation of multiple files field is translated to two
distinct parts with the same name.
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_READFUNCTION, myreadfunc);
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "stream",
CURLFORM_STREAM, arg,
CURLFORM_CONTENTLEN, (curl_off_t) datasize,
CURLFORM_FILENAME, "archive.zip",
CURLFORM_CONTENTTYPE, "application/zip",
CURLFORM_END);
becomes:
part = curl_mime_addpart(multipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "stream");
curl_mime_data_cb(part, (curl_off_t) datasize,
myreadfunc, NULL, NULL, arg);
curl_mime_filename(part, "archive.zip");
curl_mime_type(part, "application/zip");
CURLOPT_READFUNCTION callback is not used: it is replace by directly setting the part
source data from the callback read function.
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "memfile",
CURLFORM_BUFFER, "memfile.bin",
CURLFORM_BUFFERPTR, databuffer,
CURLFORM_BUFFERLENGTH, (long) sizeof databuffer,
CURLFORM_END);
becomes:
part = curl_mime_addpart(multipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "memfile");
curl_mime_data(part, databuffer, (curl_off_t) sizeof databuffer);
curl_mime_filename(part, "memfile.bin");
curl_mime_data always copies the initial data: data buffer is thus free for immediate
reuse.
curl_formadd(&post, &last,
CURLFORM_COPYNAME, "message",
CURLFORM_FILECONTENT, "msg.txt",
CURLFORM_END);
becomes:
part = curl_mime_addpart(multipart);
curl_mime_name(part, "message");
curl_mime_filedata(part, "msg.txt");
curl_mime_filename(part, NULL);
Use of curl_mime_filedata sets the remote file name as a side effect: it is therefore
necessary to clear it for CURLFORM_FILECONTENT emulation.
Showing Progress
For historical and traditional reasons, libcurl has a built-in progress meter that can be
switched on and then makes it present a progress meter in your terminal.
Switch on the progress meter by, oddly enough, setting CURLOPT_NOPROGRESS(3) to zero. This
option is set to 1 by default.
For most applications however, the built-in progress meter is useless and what instead is
interesting is the ability to specify a progress callback. The function pointer you pass
to libcurl will then be called on irregular intervals with information about the current
transfer.
Set the progress callback by using CURLOPT_PROGRESSFUNCTION(3). And pass a pointer to a
function that matches this prototype:
int progress_callback(void *clientp,
double dltotal,
double dlnow,
double ultotal,
double ulnow);
If any of the input arguments is unknown, a 0 will be passed. The first argument, the
'clientp' is the pointer you pass to libcurl with CURLOPT_PROGRESSDATA(3). libcurl won't
touch it.
libcurl with C++
There's basically only one thing to keep in mind when using C++ instead of C when
interfacing libcurl:
The callbacks CANNOT be non-static class member functions
Example C++ code:
class AClass {
static size_t write_data(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb,
void *ourpointer)
{
/* do what you want with the data */
}
}
Proxies
What "proxy" means according to Merriam-Webster: "a person authorized to act for another"
but also "the agency, function, or office of a deputy who acts as a substitute for
another".
Proxies are exceedingly common these days. Companies often only offer Internet access to
employees through their proxies. Network clients or user-agents ask the proxy for
documents, the proxy does the actual request and then it returns them.
libcurl supports SOCKS and HTTP proxies. When a given URL is wanted, libcurl will ask the
proxy for it instead of trying to connect to the actual host identified in the URL.
If you're using a SOCKS proxy, you may find that libcurl doesn't quite support all
operations through it.
For HTTP proxies: the fact that the proxy is a HTTP proxy puts certain restrictions on
what can actually happen. A requested URL that might not be a HTTP URL will be still be
passed to the HTTP proxy to deliver back to libcurl. This happens transparently, and an
application may not need to know. I say "may", because at times it is very important to
understand that all operations over a HTTP proxy use the HTTP protocol. For example, you
can't invoke your own custom FTP commands or even proper FTP directory listings.
Proxy Options
To tell libcurl to use a proxy at a given port number:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_PROXY, "proxy-host.com:8080");
Some proxies require user authentication before allowing a request, and you pass
that information similar to this:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_PROXYUSERPWD, "user:password");
If you want to, you can specify the host name only in the CURLOPT_PROXY(3) option,
and set the port number separately with CURLOPT_PROXYPORT(3).
Tell libcurl what kind of proxy it is with CURLOPT_PROXYTYPE(3) (if not, it will
default to assume a HTTP proxy):
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_PROXYTYPE, CURLPROXY_SOCKS4);
Environment Variables
libcurl automatically checks and uses a set of environment variables to know what
proxies to use for certain protocols. The names of the variables are following an
ancient de facto standard and are built up as "[protocol]_proxy" (note the lower
casing). Which makes the variable 'http_proxy' checked for a name of a proxy to use
when the input URL is HTTP. Following the same rule, the variable named 'ftp_proxy'
is checked for FTP URLs. Again, the proxies are always HTTP proxies, the different
names of the variables simply allows different HTTP proxies to be used.
The proxy environment variable contents should be in the format
"[protocol://][user:password@]machine[:port]". Where the protocol:// part is simply
ignored if present (so http://proxy and bluerk://proxy will do the same) and the
optional port number specifies on which port the proxy operates on the host. If not
specified, the internal default port number will be used and that is most likely
*not* the one you would like it to be.
There are two special environment variables. 'all_proxy' is what sets proxy for any
URL in case the protocol specific variable wasn't set, and 'no_proxy' defines a
list of hosts that should not use a proxy even though a variable may say so. If
'no_proxy' is a plain asterisk ("*") it matches all hosts.
To explicitly disable libcurl's checking for and using the proxy environment
variables, set the proxy name to "" - an empty string - with CURLOPT_PROXY(3).
SSL and Proxies
SSL is for secure point-to-point connections. This involves strong encryption and
similar things, which effectively makes it impossible for a proxy to operate as a
"man in between" which the proxy's task is, as previously discussed. Instead, the
only way to have SSL work over a HTTP proxy is to ask the proxy to tunnel trough
everything without being able to check or fiddle with the traffic.
Opening an SSL connection over a HTTP proxy is therefor a matter of asking the
proxy for a straight connection to the target host on a specified port. This is
made with the HTTP request CONNECT. ("please mr proxy, connect me to that remote
host").
Because of the nature of this operation, where the proxy has no idea what kind of
data that is passed in and out through this tunnel, this breaks some of the very
few advantages that come from using a proxy, such as caching. Many organizations
prevent this kind of tunneling to other destination port numbers than 443 (which is
the default HTTPS port number).
Tunneling Through Proxy
As explained above, tunneling is required for SSL to work and often even restricted
to the operation intended for SSL; HTTPS.
This is however not the only time proxy-tunneling might offer benefits to you or
your application.
As tunneling opens a direct connection from your application to the remote machine,
it suddenly also re-introduces the ability to do non-HTTP operations over a HTTP
proxy. You can in fact use things such as FTP upload or FTP custom commands this
way.
Again, this is often prevented by the administrators of proxies and is rarely
allowed.
Tell libcurl to use proxy tunneling like this:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTPPROXYTUNNEL, 1L);
In fact, there might even be times when you want to do plain HTTP operations using
a tunnel like this, as it then enables you to operate on the remote server instead
of asking the proxy to do so. libcurl will not stand in the way for such innovative
actions either!
Proxy Auto-Config
Netscape first came up with this. It is basically a web page (usually using a .pac
extension) with a Javascript that when executed by the browser with the requested
URL as input, returns information to the browser on how to connect to the URL. The
returned information might be "DIRECT" (which means no proxy should be used),
"PROXY host:port" (to tell the browser where the proxy for this particular URL is)
or "SOCKS host:port" (to direct the browser to a SOCKS proxy).
libcurl has no means to interpret or evaluate Javascript and thus it doesn't
support this. If you get yourself in a position where you face this nasty
invention, the following advice have been mentioned and used in the past:
- Depending on the Javascript complexity, write up a script that translates it to
another language and execute that.
- Read the Javascript code and rewrite the same logic in another language.
- Implement a Javascript interpreter; people have successfully used the Mozilla
Javascript engine in the past.
- Ask your admins to stop this, for a static proxy setup or similar.
Persistence Is The Way to Happiness
Re-cycling the same easy handle several times when doing multiple requests is the way to
go.
After each single curl_easy_perform(3) operation, libcurl will keep the connection alive
and open. A subsequent request using the same easy handle to the same host might just be
able to use the already open connection! This reduces network impact a lot.
Even if the connection is dropped, all connections involving SSL to the same host again,
will benefit from libcurl's session ID cache that drastically reduces re-connection time.
FTP connections that are kept alive save a lot of time, as the command- response round-
trips are skipped, and also you don't risk getting blocked without permission to login
again like on many FTP servers only allowing N persons to be logged in at the same time.
libcurl caches DNS name resolving results, to make lookups of a previously looked up name
a lot faster.
Other interesting details that improve performance for subsequent requests may also be
added in the future.
Each easy handle will attempt to keep the last few connections alive for a while in case
they are to be used again. You can set the size of this "cache" with the
CURLOPT_MAXCONNECTS(3) option. Default is 5. There is very seldom any point in changing
this value, and if you think of changing this it is often just a matter of thinking again.
To force your upcoming request to not use an already existing connection (it will even
close one first if there happens to be one alive to the same host you're about to operate
on), you can do that by setting CURLOPT_FRESH_CONNECT(3) to 1. In a similar spirit, you
can also forbid the upcoming request to be "lying" around and possibly get re-used after
the request by setting CURLOPT_FORBID_REUSE(3) to 1.
HTTP Headers Used by libcurl
When you use libcurl to do HTTP requests, it'll pass along a series of headers
automatically. It might be good for you to know and understand these. You can replace or
remove them by using the CURLOPT_HTTPHEADER(3) option.
Host This header is required by HTTP 1.1 and even many 1.0 servers and should be the
name of the server we want to talk to. This includes the port number if anything
but default.
Accept "*/*".
Expect When doing POST requests, libcurl sets this header to "100-continue" to ask the
server for an "OK" message before it proceeds with sending the data part of the
post. If the POSTed data amount is deemed "small", libcurl will not use this
header.
Customizing Operations
There is an ongoing development today where more and more protocols are built upon HTTP
for transport. This has obvious benefits as HTTP is a tested and reliable protocol that is
widely deployed and has excellent proxy-support.
When you use one of these protocols, and even when doing other kinds of programming you
may need to change the traditional HTTP (or FTP or...) manners. You may need to change
words, headers or various data.
libcurl is your friend here too.
CUSTOMREQUEST
If just changing the actual HTTP request keyword is what you want, like when GET,
HEAD or POST is not good enough for you, CURLOPT_CUSTOMREQUEST(3) is there for you.
It is very simple to use:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_CUSTOMREQUEST, "MYOWNREQUEST");
When using the custom request, you change the request keyword of the actual request
you are performing. Thus, by default you make a GET request but you can also make a
POST operation (as described before) and then replace the POST keyword if you want
to. You're the boss.
Modify Headers
HTTP-like protocols pass a series of headers to the server when doing the request,
and you're free to pass any amount of extra headers that you think fit. Adding
headers is this easy:
struct curl_slist *headers=NULL; /* init to NULL is important */
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "Hey-server-hey: how are you?");
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "X-silly-content: yes");
/* pass our list of custom made headers */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTPHEADER, headers);
curl_easy_perform(easyhandle); /* transfer http */
curl_slist_free_all(headers); /* free the header list */
... and if you think some of the internally generated headers, such as Accept: or
Host: don't contain the data you want them to contain, you can replace them by
simply setting them too:
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "Accept: Agent-007");
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "Host: munged.host.line");
Delete Headers
If you replace an existing header with one with no contents, you will prevent the
header from being sent. For instance, if you want to completely prevent the
"Accept:" header from being sent, you can disable it with code similar to this:
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "Accept:");
Both replacing and canceling internal headers should be done with careful
consideration and you should be aware that you may violate the HTTP protocol when
doing so.
Enforcing chunked transfer-encoding
By making sure a request uses the custom header "Transfer-Encoding: chunked" when
doing a non-GET HTTP operation, libcurl will switch over to "chunked" upload, even
though the size of the data to upload might be known. By default, libcurl usually
switches over to chunked upload automatically if the upload data size is unknown.
HTTP Version
All HTTP requests includes the version number to tell the server which version we
support. libcurl speaks HTTP 1.1 by default. Some very old servers don't like
getting 1.1-requests and when dealing with stubborn old things like that, you can
tell libcurl to use 1.0 instead by doing something like this:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTP_VERSION, CURL_HTTP_VERSION_1_0);
FTP Custom Commands
Not all protocols are HTTP-like, and thus the above may not help you when you want
to make, for example, your FTP transfers to behave differently.
Sending custom commands to a FTP server means that you need to send the commands
exactly as the FTP server expects them (RFC959 is a good guide here), and you can
only use commands that work on the control-connection alone. All kinds of commands
that require data interchange and thus need a data-connection must be left to
libcurl's own judgement. Also be aware that libcurl will do its very best to change
directory to the target directory before doing any transfer, so if you change
directory (with CWD or similar) you might confuse libcurl and then it might not
attempt to transfer the file in the correct remote directory.
A little example that deletes a given file before an operation:
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "DELE file-to-remove");
/* pass the list of custom commands to the handle */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_QUOTE, headers);
curl_easy_perform(easyhandle); /* transfer ftp data! */
curl_slist_free_all(headers); /* free the header list */
If you would instead want this operation (or chain of operations) to happen _after_
the data transfer took place the option to curl_easy_setopt(3) would instead be
called CURLOPT_POSTQUOTE(3) and used the exact same way.
The custom FTP command will be issued to the server in the same order they are
added to the list, and if a command gets an error code returned back from the
server, no more commands will be issued and libcurl will bail out with an error
code (CURLE_QUOTE_ERROR). Note that if you use CURLOPT_QUOTE(3) to send commands
before a transfer, no transfer will actually take place when a quote command has
failed.
If you set the CURLOPT_HEADER(3) to 1, you will tell libcurl to get information
about the target file and output "headers" about it. The headers will be in "HTTP-
style", looking like they do in HTTP.
The option to enable headers or to run custom FTP commands may be useful to combine
with CURLOPT_NOBODY(3). If this option is set, no actual file content transfer will
be performed.
FTP Custom CUSTOMREQUEST
If you do want to list the contents of a FTP directory using your own defined FTP
command, CURLOPT_CUSTOMREQUEST(3) will do just that. "NLST" is the default one for
listing directories but you're free to pass in your idea of a good alternative.
Cookies Without Chocolate Chips
In the HTTP sense, a cookie is a name with an associated value. A server sends the name
and value to the client, and expects it to get sent back on every subsequent request to
the server that matches the particular conditions set. The conditions include that the
domain name and path match and that the cookie hasn't become too old.
In real-world cases, servers send new cookies to replace existing ones to update them.
Server use cookies to "track" users and to keep "sessions".
Cookies are sent from server to clients with the header Set-Cookie: and they're sent from
clients to servers with the Cookie: header.
To just send whatever cookie you want to a server, you can use CURLOPT_COOKIE(3) to set a
cookie string like this:
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_COOKIE, "name1=var1; name2=var2;");
In many cases, that is not enough. You might want to dynamically save whatever cookies the
remote server passes to you, and make sure those cookies are then used accordingly on
later requests.
One way to do this, is to save all headers you receive in a plain file and when you make a
request, you tell libcurl to read the previous headers to figure out which cookies to use.
Set the header file to read cookies from with CURLOPT_COOKIEFILE(3).
The CURLOPT_COOKIEFILE(3) option also automatically enables the cookie parser in libcurl.
Until the cookie parser is enabled, libcurl will not parse or understand incoming cookies
and they will just be ignored. However, when the parser is enabled the cookies will be
understood and the cookies will be kept in memory and used properly in subsequent requests
when the same handle is used. Many times this is enough, and you may not have to save the
cookies to disk at all. Note that the file you specify to CURLOPT_COOKIEFILE(3) doesn't
have to exist to enable the parser, so a common way to just enable the parser and not read
any cookies is to use the name of a file you know doesn't exist.
If you would rather use existing cookies that you've previously received with your
Netscape or Mozilla browsers, you can make libcurl use that cookie file as input. The
CURLOPT_COOKIEFILE(3) is used for that too, as libcurl will automatically find out what
kind of file it is and act accordingly.
Perhaps the most advanced cookie operation libcurl offers, is saving the entire internal
cookie state back into a Netscape/Mozilla formatted cookie file. We call that the cookie-
jar. When you set a file name with CURLOPT_COOKIEJAR(3), that file name will be created
and all received cookies will be stored in it when curl_easy_cleanup(3) is called. This
enables cookies to get passed on properly between multiple handles without any information
getting lost.
FTP Peculiarities We Need
FTP transfers use a second TCP/IP connection for the data transfer. This is usually a fact
you can forget and ignore but at times this fact will come back to haunt you. libcurl
offers several different ways to customize how the second connection is being made.
libcurl can either connect to the server a second time or tell the server to connect back
to it. The first option is the default and it is also what works best for all the people
behind firewalls, NATs or IP-masquerading setups. libcurl then tells the server to open
up a new port and wait for a second connection. This is by default attempted with EPSV
first, and if that doesn't work it tries PASV instead. (EPSV is an extension to the
original FTP spec and does not exist nor work on all FTP servers.)
You can prevent libcurl from first trying the EPSV command by setting
CURLOPT_FTP_USE_EPSV(3) to zero.
In some cases, you will prefer to have the server connect back to you for the second
connection. This might be when the server is perhaps behind a firewall or something and
only allows connections on a single port. libcurl then informs the remote server which IP
address and port number to connect to. This is made with the CURLOPT_FTPPORT(3) option.
If you set it to "-", libcurl will use your system's "default IP address". If you want to
use a particular IP, you can set the full IP address, a host name to resolve to an IP
address or even a local network interface name that libcurl will get the IP address from.
When doing the "PORT" approach, libcurl will attempt to use the EPRT and the LPRT before
trying PORT, as they work with more protocols. You can disable this behavior by setting
CURLOPT_FTP_USE_EPRT(3) to zero.
MIME API revisited for SMTP and IMAP
In addition to support HTTP multi-part form fields, the MIME API can be used to build
structured e-mail messages and send them via SMTP or append such messages to IMAP
directories.
A structured e-mail message may contain several parts: some are displayed inline by the
MUA, some are attachments. Parts can also be structured as multi-part, for example to
include another e-mail message or to offer several text formats alternatives. This can be
nested to any level.
To build such a message, you prepare the nth-level multi-part and then include it as a
source to the parent multi-part using function curl_mime_subparts(3). Once it has been
bound to its parent multi-part, a nth-level multi-part belongs to it and should not be
freed explicitly.
E-mail messages data is not supposed to be non-ascii and line length is limited:
fortunately, some transfer encodings are defined by the standards to support the
transmission of such incompatible data. Function curl_mime_encoder(3) tells a part that
its source data must be encoded before being sent. It also generates the corresponding
header for that part. If the part data you want to send is already encoded in such a
scheme, do not use this function (this would over-encode it), but explicitly set the
corresponding part header.
Upon sending such a message, libcurl prepends it with the header list set with
CURLOPT_HTTPHEADER(3), as 0th-level mime part headers.
Here is an example building an e-mail message with an inline plain/html text alternative
and a file attachment encoded in base64:
curl_mime *message = curl_mime_init(easyhandle);
/* The inline part is an alternative proposing the html and the text
versions of the e-mail. */
curl_mime *alt = curl_mime_init(easyhandle);
/* HTML message. */
curl_mimepart *part = curl_mime_addpart(alt);
curl_mime_data(part, "<html><body><p>This is HTML</p></body></html>",
CURL_ZERO_TERMINATED);
curl_mime_type(part, "text/html");
/* Text message. */
part = curl_mime_addpart(alt);
curl_mime_data(part, "This is plain text message",
CURL_ZERO_TERMINATED);
/* Create the inline part. */
part = curl_mime_addpart(message);
curl_mime_subparts(part, alt);
curl_mime_type(part, "multipart/alternative");
struct curl_slist *headers = curl_slist_append(NULL,
"Content-Disposition: inline");
curl_mime_headers(part, headers, TRUE);
/* Add the attachment. */
part = curl_mime_addpart(message);
curl_mime_filedata(part, "manual.pdf");
curl_mime_encoder(part, "base64");
/* Build the mail headers. */
headers = curl_slist_append(NULL, "From: me@example.com");
headers = curl_slist_append(headers, "To: you@example.com");
/* Set these into the easy handle. */
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_HTTPHEADER, headers);
curl_easy_setopt(easyhandle, CURLOPT_MIMEPOST, mime);
It should be noted that appending a message to an IMAP directory requires the message size
to be known prior upload. It is therefore not possible to include parts with unknown data
size in this context.
Headers Equal Fun
Some protocols provide "headers", meta-data separated from the normal data. These headers
are by default not included in the normal data stream, but you can make them appear in the
data stream by setting CURLOPT_HEADER(3) to 1.
What might be even more useful, is libcurl's ability to separate the headers from the data
and thus make the callbacks differ. You can for example set a different pointer to pass to
the ordinary write callback by setting CURLOPT_HEADERDATA(3).
Or, you can set an entirely separate function to receive the headers, by using
CURLOPT_HEADERFUNCTION(3).
The headers are passed to the callback function one by one, and you can depend on that
fact. It makes it easier for you to add custom header parsers etc.
"Headers" for FTP transfers equal all the FTP server responses. They aren't actually true
headers, but in this case we pretend they are! ;-)
Post Transfer Information
[ curl_easy_getinfo ]
Security Considerations
The libcurl project takes security seriously. The library is written with caution and
precautions are taken to mitigate many kinds of risks encountered while operating with
potentially malicious servers on the Internet. It is a powerful library, however, which
allows application writers to make trade offs between ease of writing and exposure to
potential risky operations. If used the right way, you can use libcurl to transfer data
pretty safely.
Many applications are used in closed networks where users and servers can be trusted, but
many others are used on arbitrary servers and are fed input from potentially untrusted
users. Following is a discussion about some risks in the ways in which applications
commonly use libcurl and potential mitigations of those risks. It is by no means
comprehensive, but shows classes of attacks that robust applications should consider. The
Common Weakness Enumeration project at https://cwe.mitre.org/ is a good reference for many
of these and similar types of weaknesses of which application writers should be aware.
Command Lines
If you use a command line tool (such as curl) that uses libcurl, and you give
options to the tool on the command line those options can very likely get read by
other users of your system when they use 'ps' or other tools to list currently
running processes.
To avoid this problem, never feed sensitive things to programs using command line
options. Write them to a protected file and use the -K option to avoid this.
.netrc .netrc is a pretty handy file/feature that allows you to login quickly and
automatically to frequently visited sites. The file contains passwords in clear
text and is a real security risk. In some cases, your .netrc is also stored in a
home directory that is NFS mounted or used on another network based file system, so
the clear text password will fly through your network every time anyone reads that
file!
To avoid this problem, don't use .netrc files and never store passwords in plain
text anywhere.
Clear Text Passwords
Many of the protocols libcurl supports send name and password unencrypted as clear
text (HTTP Basic authentication, FTP, TELNET etc). It is very easy for anyone on
your network or a network nearby yours to just fire up a network analyzer tool and
eavesdrop on your passwords. Don't let the fact that HTTP Basic uses base64 encoded
passwords fool you. They may not look readable at a first glance, but they very
easily "deciphered" by anyone within seconds.
To avoid this problem, use an authentication mechanism or other protocol that
doesn't let snoopers see your password: Digest, CRAM-MD5, Kerberos, SPNEGO or NTLM
authentication, HTTPS, FTPS, SCP and SFTP are a few examples.
Redirects
The CURLOPT_FOLLOWLOCATION(3) option automatically follows HTTP redirects sent by a
remote server. These redirects can refer to any kind of URL, not just HTTP. By
default libcurl will allow all protocols on redirect except several disabled for
security reasons: Since 7.19.4 FILE and SCP are disabled, and since 7.40.0 SMB and
SMBS are also disabled.
A redirect to a file: URL would cause the libcurl to read (or write) arbitrary
files from the local filesystem. If the application returns the data back to the
user (as would happen in some kinds of CGI scripts), an attacker could leverage
this to read otherwise forbidden data (e.g. file://localhost/etc/passwd).
If authentication credentials are stored in the ~/.netrc file, or Kerberos is in
use, any other URL type (not just file:) that requires authentication is also at
risk. A redirect such as ftp://some-internal-server/private-file would then return
data even when the server is password protected.
In the same way, if an unencrypted SSH private key has been configured for the user
running the libcurl application, SCP: or SFTP: URLs could access password or
private-key protected resources, e.g. sftp://user@some-internal-server/etc/passwd
The CURLOPT_REDIR_PROTOCOLS(3) and CURLOPT_NETRC(3) options can be used to mitigate
against this kind of attack.
A redirect can also specify a location available only on the machine running
libcurl, including servers hidden behind a firewall from the attacker. e.g.
http://127.0.0.1/ or http://intranet/delete-stuff.cgi?delete=all or tftp://bootp-
server/pc-config-data
Apps can mitigate against this by disabling CURLOPT_FOLLOWLOCATION(3) and handling
redirects itself, sanitizing URLs as necessary. Alternately, an app could leave
CURLOPT_FOLLOWLOCATION(3) enabled but set CURLOPT_REDIR_PROTOCOLS(3) and install a
CURLOPT_OPENSOCKETFUNCTION(3) callback function in which addresses are sanitized
before use.
Private Resources
A user who can control the DNS server of a domain being passed in within a URL can
change the address of the host to a local, private address which a server-side
libcurl-using application could then use. e.g. the innocuous URL
http://fuzzybunnies.example.com/ could actually resolve to the IP address of a
server behind a firewall, such as 127.0.0.1 or 10.1.2.3. Apps can mitigate against
this by setting a CURLOPT_OPENSOCKETFUNCTION(3) and checking the address before a
connection.
All the malicious scenarios regarding redirected URLs apply just as well to non-
redirected URLs, if the user is allowed to specify an arbitrary URL that could
point to a private resource. For example, a web app providing a translation service
might happily translate file://localhost/etc/passwd and display the result. Apps
can mitigate against this with the CURLOPT_PROTOCOLS(3) option as well as by
similar mitigation techniques for redirections.
A malicious FTP server could in response to the PASV command return an IP address
and port number for a server local to the app running libcurl but behind a
firewall. Apps can mitigate against this by using the CURLOPT_FTP_SKIP_PASV_IP(3)
option or CURLOPT_FTPPORT(3).
IPv6 Addresses
libcurl will normally handle IPv6 addresses transparently and just as easily as
IPv4 addresses. That means that a sanitizing function that filters out addresses
like 127.0.0.1 isn't sufficient--the equivalent IPv6 addresses ::1, ::, 0:00::0:1,
::127.0.0.1 and ::ffff:7f00:1 supplied somehow by an attacker would all bypass a
naive filter and could allow access to undesired local resources. IPv6 also has
special address blocks like link-local and site-local that generally shouldn't be
accessed by a server-side libcurl-using application. A poorly-configured firewall
installed in a data center, organization or server may also be configured to limit
IPv4 connections but leave IPv6 connections wide open. In some cases, the
CURL_IPRESOLVE_V4 option can be used to limit resolved addresses to IPv4 only and
bypass these issues.
Uploads
When uploading, a redirect can cause a local (or remote) file to be overwritten.
Apps must not allow any unsanitized URL to be passed in for uploads. Also,
CURLOPT_FOLLOWLOCATION(3) should not be used on uploads. Instead, the app should
handle redirects itself, sanitizing each URL first.
Authentication
Use of CURLOPT_UNRESTRICTED_AUTH(3) could cause authentication information to be
sent to an unknown second server. Apps can mitigate against this by disabling
CURLOPT_FOLLOWLOCATION(3) and handling redirects itself, sanitizing where
necessary.
Use of the CURLAUTH_ANY option to CURLOPT_HTTPAUTH(3) could result in user name and
password being sent in clear text to an HTTP server. Instead, use CURLAUTH_ANYSAFE
which ensures that the password is encrypted over the network, or else fail the
request.
Use of the CURLUSESSL_TRY option to CURLOPT_USE_SSL(3) could result in user name
and password being sent in clear text to an FTP server. Instead, use
CURLUSESSL_CONTROL to ensure that an encrypted connection is used or else fail the
request.
Cookies
If cookies are enabled and cached, then a user could craft a URL which performs
some malicious action to a site whose authentication is already stored in a cookie.
e.g. http://mail.example.com/delete-stuff.cgi?delete=all Apps can mitigate against
this by disabling cookies or clearing them between requests.
Dangerous URLs
SCP URLs can contain raw commands within the scp: URL, which is a side effect of
how the SCP protocol is designed. e.g. scp://user:pass@host/a;date >/tmp/test;
Apps must not allow unsanitized SCP: URLs to be passed in for downloads.
Denial of Service
A malicious server could cause libcurl to effectively hang by sending a trickle of
data through, or even no data at all but just keeping the TCP connection open.
This could result in a denial-of-service attack. The CURLOPT_TIMEOUT(3) and/or
CURLOPT_LOW_SPEED_LIMIT(3) options can be used to mitigate against this.
A malicious server could cause libcurl to effectively hang by starting to send
data, then severing the connection without cleanly closing the TCP connection. The
app could install a CURLOPT_SOCKOPTFUNCTION(3) callback function and set the TCP
SO_KEEPALIVE option to mitigate against this. Setting one of the timeout options
would also work against this attack.
A malicious server could cause libcurl to download an infinite amount of data,
potentially causing all of memory or disk to be filled. Setting the
CURLOPT_MAXFILESIZE_LARGE(3) option is not sufficient to guard against this.
Instead, the app should monitor the amount of data received within the write or
progress callback and abort once the limit is reached.
A malicious HTTP server could cause an infinite redirection loop, causing a denial-
of-service. This can be mitigated by using the CURLOPT_MAXREDIRS(3) option.
Arbitrary Headers
User-supplied data must be sanitized when used in options like
CURLOPT_USERAGENT(3), CURLOPT_HTTPHEADER(3), CURLOPT_POSTFIELDS(3) and others that
are used to generate structured data. Characters like embedded carriage returns or
ampersands could allow the user to create additional headers or fields that could
cause malicious transactions.
Server-supplied Names
A server can supply data which the application may, in some cases, use as a file
name. The curl command-line tool does this with --remote-header-name, using the
Content-disposition: header to generate a file name. An application could also use
CURLINFO_EFFECTIVE_URL to generate a file name from a server-supplied redirect URL.
Special care must be taken to sanitize such names to avoid the possibility of a
malicious server supplying one like "/etc/passwd", "\autoexec.bat", "prn:" or even
".bashrc".
Server Certificates
A secure application should never use the CURLOPT_SSL_VERIFYPEER(3) option to
disable certificate validation. There are numerous attacks that are enabled by apps
that fail to properly validate server TLS/SSL certificates, thus enabling a
malicious server to spoof a legitimate one. HTTPS without validated certificates is
potentially as insecure as a plain HTTP connection.
Showing What You Do
On a related issue, be aware that even in situations like when you have problems
with libcurl and ask someone for help, everything you reveal in order to get best
possible help might also impose certain security related risks. Host names, user
names, paths, operating system specifics, etc. (not to mention passwords of course)
may in fact be used by intruders to gain additional information of a potential
target.
Be sure to limit access to application logs if they could hold private or security-
related data. Besides the obvious candidates like user names and passwords, things
like URLs, cookies or even file names could also hold sensitive data.
To avoid this problem, you must of course use your common sense. Often, you can
just edit out the sensitive data or just search/replace your true information with
faked data.
The multi Interface
The easy interface as described in detail in this document is a synchronous interface that
transfers one file at a time and doesn't return until it is done.
The multi interface, on the other hand, allows your program to transfer multiple files in
both directions at the same time, without forcing you to use multiple threads. The name
might make it seem that the multi interface is for multi-threaded programs, but the truth
is almost the reverse. The multi interface allows a single-threaded application to
perform the same kinds of multiple, simultaneous transfers that multi-threaded programs
can perform. It allows many of the benefits of multi-threaded transfers without the
complexity of managing and synchronizing many threads.
To complicate matters somewhat more, there are even two versions of the multi interface.
The event based one, also called multi_socket and the "normal one" designed for using with
select(). See the libcurl-multi.3 man page for details on the multi_socket event based
API, this description here is for the select() oriented one.
To use this interface, you are better off if you first understand the basics of how to use
the easy interface. The multi interface is simply a way to make multiple transfers at the
same time by adding up multiple easy handles into a "multi stack".
You create the easy handles you want, one for each concurrent transfer, and you set all
the options just like you learned above, and then you create a multi handle with
curl_multi_init(3) and add all those easy handles to that multi handle with
curl_multi_add_handle(3).
When you've added the handles you have for the moment (you can still add new ones at any
time), you start the transfers by calling curl_multi_perform(3).
curl_multi_perform(3) is asynchronous. It will only perform what can be done now and then
return back control to your program. It is designed to never block. You need to keep
calling the function until all transfers are completed.
The best usage of this interface is when you do a select() on all possible file
descriptors or sockets to know when to call libcurl again. This also makes it easy for you
to wait and respond to actions on your own application's sockets/handles. You figure out
what to select() for by using curl_multi_fdset(3), that fills in a set of fd_set variables
for you with the particular file descriptors libcurl uses for the moment.
When you then call select(), it'll return when one of the file handles signal action and
you then call curl_multi_perform(3) to allow libcurl to do what it wants to do. Take note
that libcurl does also feature some time-out code so we advise you to never use very long
timeouts on select() before you call curl_multi_perform(3) again. curl_multi_timeout(3) is
provided to help you get a suitable timeout period.
Another precaution you should use: always call curl_multi_fdset(3) immediately before the
select() call since the current set of file descriptors may change in any curl function
invoke.
If you want to stop the transfer of one of the easy handles in the stack, you can use
curl_multi_remove_handle(3) to remove individual easy handles. Remember that easy handles
should be curl_easy_cleanup(3)ed.
When a transfer within the multi stack has finished, the counter of running transfers (as
filled in by curl_multi_perform(3)) will decrease. When the number reaches zero, all
transfers are done.
curl_multi_info_read(3) can be used to get information about completed transfers. It then
returns the CURLcode for each easy transfer, to allow you to figure out success on each
individual transfer.
SSL, Certificates and Other Tricks
[ seeding, passwords, keys, certificates, ENGINE, ca certs ]
Sharing Data Between Easy Handles
You can share some data between easy handles when the easy interface is used, and some
data is share automatically when you use the multi interface.
When you add easy handles to a multi handle, these easy handles will automatically share a
lot of the data that otherwise would be kept on a per-easy handle basis when the easy
interface is used.
The DNS cache is shared between handles within a multi handle, making subsequent name
resolving faster, and the connection pool that is kept to better allow persistent
connections and connection re-use is also shared. If you're using the easy interface, you
can still share these between specific easy handles by using the share interface, see
libcurl-share(3).
Some things are never shared automatically, not within multi handles, like for example
cookies so the only way to share that is with the share interface.
Footnotes
[1] libcurl 7.10.3 and later have the ability to switch over to chunked Transfer-
Encoding in cases where HTTP uploads are done with data of an unknown size.
[2] This happens on Windows machines when libcurl is built and used as a DLL. However,
you can still do this on Windows if you link with a static library.
[3] The curl-config tool is generated at build-time (on Unix-like systems) and should
be installed with the 'make install' or similar instruction that installs the
library, header files, man pages etc.
[4] This behavior was different in versions before 7.17.0, where strings had to remain
valid past the end of the curl_easy_setopt(3) call.
SEE ALSO
libcurl-errors(3), libcurl-multi(3), libcurl-easy(3)